Border control refers to measures taken by a state or a bloc of states to monitor[1] and regulate the movement of people, animals, and goods across its borders, including land borders as well as airports and sea ports. In some cases, it can also refer to such controls imposed on internal borders within a single state. Border controls in the 21st century are tightly intertwined with
intricate systems of travel documents, visas, and increasingly complex policies that vary between countries. While some borders (including most states' internal borders and international borders within the Schengen Area) are open and completely unguarded, others (including the vast majority of borders between countries as well as some internal borders) are subject to some degree of
control and may be crossed legally only at designated checkpoints.
Contents
1 History
2 Internal border controls
2.1 Asia
2.2 Europe
2.3 North America
2.3.1 Contemporary
2.3.2 Historical
2.4 Realm of New Zealand
2.5 Apartheid-era South Africa
3 Aspects
3.1 Biosecurity
3.2 Customs
3.2.1 Customs area
3.2.2 Sanitary and phytosanitary measures
3.2.3 Duty-free shops
3.3 Air and maritime borders
3.4 Border security
3.4.1 Border checkpoints
3.4.1.1 Port of entry
3.4.1.2 Quilantan entry
3.4.2 Border zones
3.5 Drugs
3.6 Immigration law and policy
3.6.1 Diaspora communities
3.6.2 Special immigration areas
3.6.3 Local border traffic
3.6.4 Immigrant investor programmes
3.6.5 Open borders
3.7 International zones
3.7.1 Airport transit areas
3.7.2 Other examples
4 Travel documents
4.1 International Certificate of Vaccination
4.2 Diplomatic and Official Passports
4.3 Laissez-passer
4.4 Identity cards
4.5 Travel documents for permanent residents
4.6 Seafarers' identity documents
4.7 Indigenous nations
4.7.1 Indigenous passports
4.7.2 Certificate of Indigenous Status
4.7.3 Enhanced Tribal Identity Cards
4.7.4 Kikapoo I-872 Native American Card
4.7.5 American Samoans
4.8 Special travel documents
4.8.1 Certificate of identity
4.8.2 Chinese Travel Document
4.8.3 Israeli Travel Document in lieu of a National Passport
4.8.4 Passports without right of abode
4.8.5 Serbian Coordination Directorate Passports in Kosovo
4.9 Visas
5 Specific requirements
5.1 Biometrics
5.2 Immigration stamps
5.3 Exit controls
5.3.1 No exit control
5.3.2 Formal exit control without passport stamping
5.3.3 Exit permits
5.4 Nationality and travel history
5.5 Prescreening
5.5.1 Informal prescreening
6 Expedited border controls
6.1 British Isles
6.2 Asia and Oceania
6.3 North America
6.4 APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC)
7 Border control organisations by country
8 Controversies
8.1 America
8.1.1 Policies targeting Muslims
8.1.2 Separation of families seeking asylum
8.2 Bhutan
8.3 Israel
8.4 Australia
8.4.1 Offshore detention centres
8.4.2 Travel restrictions on Australian citizens during the COVID-19 pandemic
8.5 China
8.6 Cyprus and the European Union
8.7 Involvement of private companies
9 Gallery
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
History
The purpose of the Great Wall of China was to stop the "barbarians" from crossing the northern border of China.
States and rulers have always regarded the ability to determine who enters or remains in their territories as a key test of their sovereignty, but prior to World War I, border controls were only sporadically implemented.[2] In medieval Europe, for example, the boundaries between rival countries and centres of power were largely symbolic or consisted of amorphous borderlands, 'marches',
and 'debatable lands' of indeterminate or contested status and the real 'borders' consisted of the fortified walls that surrounded towns and cities, where the authorities could exclude undesirable or incompatible people at the gates, from vagrants, beggars and the 'wandering poor', to 'masterless women', lepers, Romani, or Jews.[3]
Arabic papyrus with an exit permit, dated 24 January 722 AD, pointing to the regulation of travel activities. From Hermopolis Magna, Egypt
Chinese passport from the Qing Dynasty, 24th Year of the Guangxu Reign, 1898
The concept of border controls has its origins in antiquity. In Asia, the existence of border controls is evidenced in classical texts. The Arthashastra (c.  3rd century BCE) make mentions of passes issued at the rate of one masha per pass to enter and exit the country. Chapter 34 of the Second Book of Arthashastra concerns with the duties of the Mudrādhyakṣa (lit. 'Superintendent
of Seals') who must issue sealed passes before a person could enter or leave the countryside.[4] Passports resembling those issued today were an important part of the Chinese bureaucracy as early as the Western Han (202 BCE-220 CE), if not in the Qin Dynasty. They required such details as age, height, and bodily features.[5] These passports (zhuan) determined a person's ability to move
throughout imperial counties and through points of control. Even children needed passports, but those of one year or less who were in their mother's care may not have needed them.[5]
In the medieval Islamic Caliphate, a form of passport was the bara'a, a receipt for taxes paid. Border controls were in place to ensure that only people who paid their zakah (for Muslims) or jizya (for dhimmis) taxes could travel freely between different regions of the Caliphate; thus, the bara'a receipt was a "basic passport".[6]
In medieval Europe, passports were issued since at least the reign of Henry V of England, as a means of helping his subjects prove who they were in foreign lands. The earliest reference to these documents is found in a 1414 Act of Parliament.[7][8] In 1540, granting travel documents in England became a role of the Privy Council of England, and it was around this time that the term
"passport" was used. In 1794, issuing British passports became the job of the Office of the Secretary of State.[7] The 1548 Imperial Diet of Augsburg required the public to hold imperial documents for travel, at the risk of permanent exile.[9] During World War I, European governments introduced border passport requirements for security reasons, and to control the emigration of people
with useful skills. These controls remained in place after the war, becoming a standard, though controversial, procedure. British tourists of the 1920s complained, especially about attached photographs and physical descriptions, which they considered led to a "nasty dehumanisation".[10]
Starting in the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire established quarantine stations on many of its borders to control disease. For example, along the Greek-Turkish border, all travellers entering and exiting the Ottoman Empire would be quarantined for 9–15 days. These stations would often be manned by armed guards. If plague appeared, the Ottoman army would be deployed to enforce
border control and monitor disease.[11]
One of the earliest systematic attempts of modern nation states to implement border controls to restrict entry of particular groups were policies adopted by Canada, Australia, and America to curtail immigration of Asians in white settler states in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first anti-East Asian policy implemented in this era was the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 in
America, which was followed suit by the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 in Canada, which imposed what came to be called the Chinese head tax. These policies was a sign of injustice and unfair treatment to the Chinese workers because the jobs they engaged in were mostly menial jobs.[12] Similar policies were adopted in various British colonies in Australia over the latter half of the 19th
century targeting Asian immigrants arriving as a result of the region's series of gold rushes[13] as well as Kanakas (Pacific Islanders brought into Australia as indentured labourers)[14] who alongside the Asians were perceived by trade unionists and White blue collar workers as a threat to the wages of White settlers.[15] Following the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia in
1901, these discriminatory border control measures quickly expanded into the White Australia Policy, while subsequent legislation in America (e.g. the Immigration Act of 1891, the Naturalisation Act of 1906, and the Immigration Act of 1917) resulted in an even stricter policy targeting immigrants from both Asia and parts of southern and eastern Europe.
BN(O) passports sported a burgundy red cover, identical to that of the British Citizen passports, albeit without the words "European Union" text at the top part of the cover between 1990 and March 2020.
Even following the adoption of measures such as the White Australia Policy and the Chinese Exclusion Act in English-speaking settler colonies, pervasive control of international borders remained a relatively rare phenomenon until the early 20th century, prior to which many states had open international borders either in practice or due to a lack of any legal restriction. John Maynard
Keynes identified World War I in particular as the point when such controls became commonplace.[16]
Decolonisation during the twentieth century saw the emergence of mass emigration from nations in the Global South, thus leading former colonial occupiers to introduce stricter border controls.[17] In the United Kingdom this process took place in stages, with British nationality law eventually shifting from recognising all Commonwealth citizens as British subjects to today's complex
British nationality law which distinguishes between British citizens, modern British Subjects, British Overseas Citizens, and overseas nationals, with each non-standard category created as a result of attempts to balance border control and the need to mitigate statelessness. This aspect of the rise of border control in the 20th century has proven controversial. The British Nationality
Law 1981 has been criticised by experts,[a] as well as by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination of the United Nations,[b] on the grounds that the different classes of British nationality it created are, in fact, closely related to the ethnic origins of their holders.
The creation of British Nationality (Overseas) status, for instance, (with fewer privileges than British citizen status) was met with criticism from many Hong Kong residents who felt that British citizenship would have been more appropriate in light of the "moral debt" owed to them by the UK.[c][d] Some British politicians[e] and magazines[f] also criticised the creation of BN(O) status.
In 2020, the British government under Boris Johnson announced a programme under which BN(O)s would have leave to remain in the UK with rights to work and study for five years, after which they may apply for settled status. They would then be eligible for full citizenship after holding settled status for 12 months.[23] This was implemented as the eponymously named "British National
(Overseas) visa", a residence permit that BN(O)s and their dependent family members have been able to apply for since 31 January 2021.[24][25] BN(O)s and their dependents who arrived in the UK before the new immigration route became available were granted "Leave Outside the Rules" at the discretion of the Border Force to remain in the country for up to six months as a temporary
measure.[26] In effect, this retroactively granted BN(O)s a path to right of abode in the United Kingdom. Despite the COVID-19 pandemic, about 7,000 people had entered the UK under this scheme between July 2020 and January 2021.[27]
Ethnic tensions created during colonial occupation also resulted in discriminatory policies being adopted in newly independent African nations, such as Uganda under Idi Amin which banned Asians from Uganda, thus creating a mass exodus of the (largely Gujarati[28][29]) Asian community of Uganda. Such ethnically driven border control policies took forms ranging from anti-Asian sentiment in
East Africa to Apartheid policies in South Africa and Namibia (then known as Southwest Africa under South African rule) which created bantustans[g] and pass laws[h] to segregate and impose border controls against non-whites, and encouraged immigration of whites at the expense of Blacks as well as Indians and other Asians. Whilst border control in Europe and east of the Pacific have
tightened over time,[17] they have largely been liberalised in Africa, from Yoweri Museveni's reversal of Idi Amin's anti-Asian border controls[i] to the fall of Apartheid (and thus racialised border controls) in South Africa.
The development of border control policies over the course of the 20th century also saw the standardisation of refugee travel documents under the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees of 1951[j] and the 1954 Convention travel document[36] for stateless people under the similar 1954 statelessness convention.
The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 produced a drastic tightening of border controls across the globe. Many countries and regions have imposed quarantines, entry bans, or other restrictions for citizens of or recent travellers to the most affected areas.[37] Other countries and regions have imposed global restrictions that apply to all foreign countries and territories, or prevent their own
citizens from travelling overseas.[38] The imposition of border controls has curtailed the spread of the virus, but because they were first implemented after community spread was established in multiple countries in different regions of the world, they produced only a modest reduction in the total number of people infected[39] These strict border controls economic harm to the tourism
industry through lost income and social harm to people who were unable to travel for family matters or other reasons. When the travel bans are lifted, many people are expected to resume traveling. However, some travel, especially business travel, may be decreased long-term as lower cost alternatives, such as teleconferencing and virtual events, are preferred.[40] A possible long-term
impact has been a decline of business travel and international conferencing, and the rise of their virtual, online equivalents.[41] Concerns have been raised over the effectiveness of travel restrictions to contain the spread of COVID-19.[42]
Internal border controls
Internal border controls are measures implemented to control the flow of people or goods within a given country. Such measures take a variety of forms ranging from the imposition of border checkpoints to the issuance of internal travel documents and vary depending on the circumstances in which they are implemented. Circumstances resulting in internal border controls include increasing
security around border areas (e.g. internal checkpoints in America or Bhutan near border regions), preserving the autonomy of autonomous or minority areas (e.g. border controls between Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak; border controls between Hong Kong, Macau, and mainland China), preventing unrest between ethnic groups (e.g. Northern Ireland's peace walls, border controls in
Tibet and Northeastern India), and disputes between rival governments (e.g. between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China).
During the COVID-19 pandemic, temporary internal border controls were introduced in jurisdictions across the globe. For instance, travel between Australian states and territories was prohibited or restricted by state governments at various points of the pandemic either in conjunction with sporadic lockdowns or as a stand-alone response to COVID-19 outbreaks in neighbouring
states.[43][44][45] Internal border controls were also introduced at various stages of Malaysia's Movement Control Order, per which interstate travel was restricted depending on the severity of ongoing outbreaks. Similarly, internal controls were introduced by national authorities within the Schengen Area, though the European Union ultimately rejected the idea of suspending the Schengen
Agreement per se.[46][47]
Asia
Internal border controls exist in many parts of Asia. For example, travellers visiting minority regions in India and China often require special permits to enter.[k] Internal air and rail travel within non-autonomous portions of India and mainland China also generally require travel documents to be checked by government officials as a form of interior border checkpoint. For such travel
within India, Indian citizens may utilise their Voter ID, National Identity Card, passport, or other proof of Indian citizenship whilst Nepali nationals may present any similar proof of Napali citizenship. Meanwhile, for such travel within mainland China, Chinese nationals from the mainland are required to use their national identity cards.
Within China, extensive border controls are maintained for those travelling between the mainland, special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau, and areas controlled by the Republic of China.[l] Foreign nationals need to present their passports or other required types of travel documents when travelling between these areas. For Chinese nationals (including those with British
National (Overseas) status), there are special documents[m] for travel between these territories. Similar arrangements exist for travel between territories controlled by the Republic of China and territories controlled by the People's Republic of China. [n] Internal border controls in China have also resulted in the creation of special permits allowing Chinese citizens to immigrate to or
reside in other immigration areas within the country.[o]
China also maintains distinct, relaxed border control policies in the Special Economic Zones of Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Xiamen.[50][51] Nationals of most countries[p] can obtain a limited area visa upon arrival in these regions, which permit them to stay within these cities without proceeding further into other parts of Mainland China. Visas for Shenzhen are valid for 5 days, and visas for
Xiamen and Zhuhai are valid for 3 days. The duration of stay starts from the next day of arrival.[53] The visa can only be obtained only upon arrival at Luohu Port, Huanggang Port Control Point, Fuyong Ferry Terminal or Shekou Passenger Terminal for Shenzhen;[54] Gongbei Port of Entry, Hengqin Port or Jiuzhou Port for Zhuhai;[55] and Xiamen Gaoqi International Airport for Xiamen.[56]
Similarly, China permits nationals of non—visa-exempt ASEAN countries[q] to visit Guilin without a visa for a maximum of 6 days if they travel with an approved tour group and enter China from Guilin Liangjiang International Airport. They may not visit other cities within Guangxi or other parts of Mainland China.[57]
Meanwhile, in Bhutan, a microstate accessible by road only through India, there are interior border checkposts (primarily on the Lateral Road) and, additionally, certain areas require special permits to enter, whilst visitors not proceeding beyond the border city of Phuentsholing do not need permits to enter for the day (although such visitors are de facto subject to Indian visa policy
since they must proceed through Jaigaon). Individuals who are not citizens of India, Bangladesh, or the Maldives are not allowed to proceed past Phuentsholing by land and are instead required to arrive by air at the country's sole international airport in Paro, which has flights from India and other countries in the Greater India region such as Thailand, Singapore, and Nepal.
More generally, authorities in mainland China maintain a system of residency registration known as hukou (Chinese: 户口; lit. 'household individual'), by which government permission is needed to formally change one's place of residence. It is enforced with identity cards. This system of internal border control measures effectively limited internal migration before the 1980s but
subsequent market reforms caused it to collapse as a means of migration control. An estimated 150 to 200 million people are part of the "blind flow" and have unofficially migrated, generally from poor, rural areas to wealthy, urban ones. However, unofficial residents are often denied official services such as education and medical care and are sometimes subject to both social and
political discrimination. In essence, the denial of social services outside an individual's registered area of residence functions as an internal border control measure geared toward dissuading migration within the mainland.
The Hộ khẩu system in Vietnam is similar to the Hukou system in mainland China. Local authorities issue each household a "household registration book" or sổ hộ khẩu, in which the basic biographical information of each household member is recorded. The sổ hộ khẩu is the ultimate legal proof of residence in Vietnam. Together with the "citizen identification card" or giấy
chứng minh nhân dân/căn cước công dân, the sổ hộ khẩu constitutes the most important legal identification document in Vietnam. Modeled after the Chinese hukou system and originally used in urban areas only, hộ khẩu functioned as a way to manage urban growth and limit how many people moved, as well as who moved in and out of the cities.[58] Gradually, the system became
a universal method of control as its application expanded to the countryside.[59] Presently, the system defines four types of residence, KT1 through KT4. KT1 is the primary and permanent type of residence, and denotes a person's primary residential address. If this person moves on a semi-permanent basis to another place within the same province or national municipality (within Saigon,
for example), then he or she needs to register for a KT2 residential status at that new address. If this same move happens across provincial borders, then the person has to sign up for a KT3 registration. For migrant workers and students temporarily residing outside of their province or national municipality of permanent residence, they need to apply for a KT4 registration.[58]
Navigating this matrix of regulations is tough. But the public security apparatus that manages the hộ khẩu system is also difficult to deal with, especially if one is a poor migrant worker with little to no formal education. Yet hộ khẩu remains absolutely crucial, especially for the poor. It is tied to access to welfare benefits, and, in the case of children, the right to attend
public school.[60] For a migrant family in Saigon with no KT3 or KT4 registration, subsidised medical care, poverty assistance, and almost-free schooling are all out of reach.[59] Much like its counterpart in mainland China, the denial of services outside an individual's place of registered residence resulting from this system of internal border control serves to dissuade internal
migration.
Another example is the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, which have maintained their own border controls[61] since joining Malaysia in 1963. The internal border control is asymmetrical; while Sabah and Sarawak impose immigration control on Malaysian citizens from other states, there is no corresponding border control in Peninsular Malaysia, and Malaysians from Sabah and Sarawak have
unrestricted right to live and work in the Peninsular. For social and business visits less than three months, Malaysian citizens may travel between the Peninsular, Sabah and Sarawak using the Malaysian identity card (MyKad) or Malaysian passport, while for longer stays in Sabah and Sarawak they are required to have an Internal Travel Document or a passport with the appropriate
residential permit.
The most restrictive internal border controls are in North Korea. Citizens are not allowed to travel outside their areas of residence without explicit authorisation, and access to the capital city of Pyongyang is heavily restricted.[62][63] Similar restrictions are imposed on tourists, who are only allowed to leave Pyongyang on government-authorised tours to approved tourist sites.
Domestic Immigration stamp permitting entry into the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India.
 
Sample of a One Way Travel Permit for internal emigration from mainland China to Hong Kong or Macau.
 
Sample of a Special Economic Zone visa issued on arrival in China
 
Data page of a booklet type internal travel document issued by Taiwan authorities to a Mainland Chinese resident.
 
Malaysian entry stamps specify which jurisdictions (i.e. West or Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak) the bearer is permitted to enter, and there are immigration checks when entering each.
 
The entrance to the building of the Shenzhen Bay Control Point, an internal border checkpoint between Hong Kong and the Chinese mainland
 
The Tibet Travel Permit, required to enter the Tibet Autonomous Region, is an example of internal border controls in minority regions of China and India. Other similar documents include Restricted Area Permits and Protected Area permits primarily issued to enter India's northeast.
 
Front and back of mainland residence permits for Chinese citizens from Hong Kong and Macau (left) and Chinese citizens from areas administered by the Republic of China (right)
 
internal travel document issued to Chinese citizens from the mainland for travel to and from Hong Kong and Macau
 
Exit endorsements affixed to the back of an internal travel document issued to Chinese citizens from the mainland for travel to and from Hong Kong or Macau
 
An internal travel document issued to Chinese citizens from areas administered by the Republic of China to travel to and from the mainland
 
Internal travel document for Chinese citizens of Hong Kong or Macau to enter the mainland.
 
The inside pages of hukou booklet in China.
Europe
The red lines indicate temporary internal border controls within the Schengen Area. The blue area represents members of the Schengen area, the green area represents European Union members not in the Schengen Area, and the grey area represents the rest of western Europe.
An example from Europe is the implementation of border controls on travel between Svalbard, which maintains a policy of free migration as a result of the Svalbard Treaty and the Schengen Area, which includes the rest of Norway. Other examples of effective internal border controls in Europe include the closed cities of certain CIS members, areas of Turkmenistan that require special
permits to enter, restrictions on travel to the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region in Tajikistan, and (depending on whether Northern and Southern Cyprus are considered separate countries) the Cypriot border. Similarly, Iraq's Kurdistan region maintains a separate and more liberal visa and customs area from the rest of the country, even allowing visa free entry for Israelis whilst the
rest of the country bans them from entering. Denmark also maintains a complex system of subnational countries which, unlike the Danish mainland, are outside the European Union and maintain autonomous customs policies.[r] In addition to the numerous closed cities of Russia,[64] parts of 19 subjects[s] of the Russian Federation are closed for foreigners without special permits and are
consequently subject to internal border controls.[65]
Another complex border control situation in Europe pertains to the United Kingdom. Whilst the crown dependencies are within the Common Travel Area, neither Gibraltar nor the sovereign British military exclaves of Akrotiri and Dhekelia are. The former maintains its own border control policies, thus requiring physical border security at its border with the Schengen Area as well as the
implementation of border controls for travellers proceeding directly between Gibraltar and the British mainland. The latter maintains a relatively open border with Southern Cyprus, though not with Northern Cyprus. Consequently, it is a de facto member of the Schengen Area and travel to or from the British mainland requires border controls. On 31 December 2020, Spain and the United
Kingdom reached an agreement in principle under which Gibraltar would join the Schengen Area,[66] clearing the way for the European Union and the UK to start formal negotiations on the matter.[67]
In the aftermath of Brexit, border controls for goods flowing between Great Britain and Northern Ireland were introduced in accordance with the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland agreed to as part of the UK's withdrawal agreement with the EU.[68] Due to the thirty-year internecine conflict in Northern Ireland, the UK-Ireland border has had a special status since that conflict was ended
by the Belfast Agreement/Good Friday Agreement of 1998. As part of the Northern Ireland Peace Process, the border has been largely invisible, without any physical barrier or custom checks on its many crossing points; this arrangement was made possible by both countries' common membership of both the EU's Single Market and Customs Union and of their Common Travel Area. Upon the UK's
withdrawal from the European Union, the border in Ireland became the only land border between the UK and EU. EU single market and UK internal market provisions require certain customs checks and trade controls at their external borders. The Northern Ireland Protocol is intended to protect the EU single market, while avoiding imposition of a 'hard border' that might incite a recurrence of
conflict and destabilise the relative peace that has held since the end of the Troubles. Under the Protocol, Northern Ireland is formally outside the EU single market, but EU free movement of goods rules and EU Customs Union rules still apply; this ensures there are no customs checks or controls between Northern Ireland and the rest of the island. In place of an Ireland/Northern Ireland
land border, the protocol has created a de facto customs border down the Irish Sea for customs purposes, separating Northern Ireland from the island of Great Britain,[69][70] to the disquiet of prominent Unionists.[71] To operate the terms of the protocol, the United Kingdom must provide border control posts at Northern Ireland's ports:[71] actual provision of these facilities is the
responsibility of Northern Ireland's Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA).[71] Temporary buildings were put in place for 1 January 2021, but in February 2021, the responsible Northern Ireland minister, Gordon Lyons (DUP), ordered officials to stop work on new permanent facilities and to stop recruiting staff for them.[72] In its half yearly financial report 26
August 2021, Irish Continental Group, which operates ferries between Great Britain and the Republic of Ireland, expressed concern at the lack of implementation of checks on goods arriving into Northern Ireland from Great Britain, as required under the protocol. The company said that the continued absence of these checks (on goods destined for the Republic of Ireland) is causing a
distortion in the level playing field, since goods that arrive directly into Republic of Ireland ports from Great Britain are checked on arrival.[73] The implementation of border controls between Great Britain and Northern Ireland was the primary catalyst for the 2021 Northern Ireland riots.
An unusual example of internal border controls pertains to customs enforcement within the Schengen area. Even though borders are generally invisible, the existence of areas within the Schengen area but outside the European Union Value Added Tax Area, as well as jurisdictions such as Andorra which are not officially a part of the Schengen area but can not be accessed without passing
through it, has resulted in the existence of sporadic internal border controls for customs purposes. Additionally, as per Schengen area rules,[74] hotels and other types of commercial accommodation must register all foreign citizens, including citizens of other Schengen states, by requiring the completion of a registration form by their own hand. [t] The Schengen rules do not require any
other procedures; thus, the Schengen states are free to regulate further details on the content of the registration forms, and identity documents which are to be produced, and may also require the persons exempted from registration by Schengen laws to be registered. A Schengen state is also permitted to reinstate border controls with another Schengen country for a short period where
there is a serious threat to that state's "public policy or internal security" or when the "control of an external border is no longer ensured due to exceptional circumstances".[76] When such risks arise out of foreseeable events, the state in question must notify the European Commission in advance and consult with other Schengen states.[77] Since the implementation of the Schengen
Agreement, this provision has been invoked frequently by member states, especially in response to the European migrant crisis.[u]
The Israeli military maintains an intricate network of internal border controls within Israeli and Palestinian territory restricting the freedom of movement of Palestinians, composed of permanent, temporary, and random manned checkpoints in the West Bank; the West Bank Barrier; and restrictions on the usage of roads by Palestinians.[80] Spread throughout the State of Israel and the areas
of the State of Palestine under de facto Israeli control, internal border control measures are a key feature of Israeli and Palestinian life and are among the most restrictive in the world. Additionally, the blockade of the Gaza Strip results in a de facto domestic customs and immigration border for Palestinians. In order to clear internal border controls, Palestinians are required to
obtain a variety of permits from Israeli authorities depending on the purpose and area of their travel. The legality and impact of this network of internal border controls is controversial. B'Tselem, an Israeli non-governmental organisation that monitors human rights in Palestine, argues that they breach the rights guaranteed by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights—in particular, the right to a livelihood, the right to an acceptable standard of living, the right to satisfactory nutrition, clothing, and housing, and the right to attain the best standard of physical and mental health.[81] B'Tselem also argues that the restrictions on ill, wounded and pregnant Palestinians seeking acute medical care is in contravention of international law
that states that medical professionals and the sick must be granted open passage.[82] While Israeli Supreme Court has deemed the measures acceptable for security reasons, Haaretz's Amira Hass argues this policy defies one of the principles of the Oslo Accords, which states that Gaza and the West Bank constitute a single geographic unit.[83]
Much like relations between Jewish settlers in Israel and the native Palestinian population, strained intercommunal relations in Northern Ireland between Irish Catholics and the descendants of Protestant settlers from England and Scotland have resulted in de facto internal checkpoints. The peace lines are an internal border security measure to separate predominantly republican and
nationalist Catholic neighbourhoods from predominantly loyalist and unionist Protestant neighbourhoods. They have been in place in some form or another since the end of The Troubles in 1998, with the Good Friday Agreement. The majority of peace walls are located in Belfast, but they also exist in Derry, Portadown, and Lurgan,[84] with more than 32 kilometres of walls in Northern
Ireland.[85] The peace lines range in length from a few hundred metres to over 5 kilometres. They may be made of iron, brick, steel or a combination of the three and are up to 8 metres high.[86][84] Some have gates in them (sometimes staffed by police) that allow passage during daylight but are closed at night.
Banner opposing post-Brexit border controls between Great Britain and Northern Ireland seen in Sandy Row (March 2021)
 
Graffiti in Belfast opposing an "Irish Sea border" (February 2021)
 
A 5.5m high peace line along Springmartin Road in Belfast, with a fortified police station at one end
 
The peace line along Cupar Way in Belfast, seen from the predominantly Protestant side
 
The peace line at Bombay Street/Cupar Way in Belfast, seen from the predominantly Catholic side
 
Gates in a peace line in West Belfast
 
Israeli checkpoint outside the Palestinian city of Ramallah. August 2004
 
Vehicles queuing at Kalandia checkpoint in Palestine, August 2004
 
Huwwara checkpoint, south of the Palestinian city of Nablus.[87]
 
Central entry checkpoint to the closed city of Seversk, Tomsk Oblast, Russia.
 
As a consequence of Svalbard's unique immigration status and exclusion from the rest of Norway for border control purposes, the city of Barentsburg is predominantly Russian and hosts the world's second northernmost statue of Lenin (the northernmost is in Pyramiden).
 
Border post between France and Andorra, a microstate that de facto follows Schengen immigration policies and utilises the Euro as its national currency yet is not a part of the European Union VAT and customs areas.
 
The Italy-Switzerland border is an internal Schengen border, but as seen at this border crossing at Chiasso, there are border control facilities since Switzerland maintains its own customs and tax area.
North America
Contemporary
See also: Hyder-Stewart Border Crossing, Cornwall Island (Ontario), and Akwesasne
American Samoa entry stamp
Hyder, Alaska has no border controls for travellers entering from Canada, and travellers flying between Hyder and other Alaskan cities by seaplane undergo internal border control
Multiple types of internal border controls exist in America. While the American territories of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands follow the visa policy of the United States, together, they also maintain their own visa waiver programme for certain nationalities.[88] Since the two territories are outside the customs territory of the United States, there are customs inspections when
travelling between them, and the rest of America. American Samoa has its own customs and immigration regulations, thus travelling between it and other American jurisdictions involves both customs and immigration inspections. The Virgin Islands are a special case, falling within the American immigration zone and solely following American visa policy, but being a customs free territory. As
a result, there are no immigration checks between the two, but travellers arriving in Puerto Rico or the American mainland directly from the Virgin Islands are subject to border control for customs inspection. America also maintains interior checkpoints, similar to those maintained by Bhutan, along its borders with Mexico and Canada, subjecting people to border controls even after they
have entered the country.
The Akwesasne nation; with territory in Ontario, Quebec, and New York; features several de facto internal border controls. As a result of protests by Akwesasne residents on their rights to cross the border unimpeded, as provided under the 1795 Jay Treaty, the Canada Border Services Agency closed its post on Cornwall Island, instead requiring travellers to proceed to the checkpoint in the
city of Cornwall. As a consequence of the arrangement, residents of the island are required to clear border controls when proceeding North to the Ontarian mainland, as well as when proceeding South to Akwesasne territory in New York, thus constituting internal controls both from a Canadian perspective and from the perspective of the Akwesasne nation. Similarly, travelling between Canada
and the Quebec portion of the Akwesasne nation requires driving through the state of New York, meaning that individuals will be required to clear American controls when leaving Quebec proper and to clear Canadian border controls when entering Quebec proper, though Canada does not impose border controls when entering the Quebec portion of the Akwesasne nation. Nevertheless, for residents
who assert a Haudenosaunee national identity distinct from Canadian or American citizenship, the intricate network of Canadian and American border controls are seen as a foreign-imposed system of internal border controls, similar to the Israeli checkpoints in Palestinian territory.[89][90]
The city of Hyder, Alaska has also been subject to internal border controls since America chose to stop regulating arrivals in Hyder from British Columbia. Since travellers exiting Hyder into Stewart, British Columbia are subject to Canadian border controls, it is theoretically possible for someone to accidentally enter Hyder from Canada without their travel documents and then to face
difficulties since both America and Canada would subject them to border controls that require travel documents. At the same time, however, the northern road connecting Hyder to uninhabited mountain regions of British Columbia is equipped with neither American nor Canadian border controls, meaning that tourists from Canada proceeding northwards from Hyder are required to complete Canadian
immigration formalities when they return to Stewart despite never having cleared American immigration.
Historical
Further information: Pass system (Canadian history), Slavery in the United States, and Slavery in the colonial history of the United States
In the past, internal border control measures were utilised by authorities in North America to control the movements of Indigenous or enslaved persons. Such systems typically took the form of an internal passport required for Indigenous or enslaved individuals to travel beyond their reserve or plantation.
In 1885 the "pass system" of internal border controls targeting Indigenous peoples was instituted in Canada. Introduced at the time of the North-West Rebellion, it remained in force until 1951.[91] Any Indigenous person caught outside his Indian reserve without a pass issued by an Indian agent was returned to the reserve or incarcerated.
Throughout the Thirteen Colonies before the Revolutionary War, slaves confined to homes or agricultural plantations, or whose movements were limited by curfews, could be required to furnish written evidence their owner had granted an exemption to permit their free movement. For example, the New Hampshire Assembly in 1714 passed "An Act To Prevent Disorders In The Night":[92][93]
Whereas great disorders, insolencies and burglaries are oft times raised and committed in the night time by Indian, Negro, and Molatto Servants and Slaves to the Disquiet and hurt of her Majesty, No Indian, Negro, or Molatto is to be from Home after 9 o'clock.
Notices emphasizing the curfew were published in The New Hampshire Gazette in 1764 and 1771.[92]
Internal passports were required for African Americans in the southern slave states before the American Civil War, for example, an authenticated internal passport dated 1815 was presented to Massachusetts citizen George Barker to allow him to freely travel as a free black man to visit relatives in slave states.[94] After many of these states seceded, forming the Confederate States of
America, the Confederate government introduced internal passports for whites as well.[95]
Realm of New Zealand
Niue entry stamp issued at Hanan International Airport
Main article: Visa policy of New Zealand
Further information: Realm of New Zealand
Tokelau, Niue, and the Cook Islands (Cook Islands Māori: Kūki 'Āirani)[96] maintain independent and less restrictive border controls from New Zealand. The Cook Islands further maintain a separate nationality law. Additionally, border controls for Tokelau are complicated by the fact that the territory is, for the most part, only accessible via Samoa.
Apartheid-era South Africa
Main article: Pass laws
Demonstrators discarding their passbooks to protest apartheid, 1960
In South Africa prior to the end of Apartheid, pass laws were a form of internal passport system designed to segregate the population, manage urbanisation, and allocate migrant labour. Also known as the natives' law, pass laws severely limited the movements of not only black African citizens, but other people as well by requiring or designated areas. Before the 1950s, this legislation
largely applied to African men, and attempts to apply it to women in the 1910s and 1950s were met with significant protests. Pass laws were one of the dominant features of the country's apartheid system until it was effectively ended in 1986. The first internal passports in South Africa were introduced on 27 June 1797 by the Earl Macartney in an attempt to prevent Africans from entering
the Cape Colony.[97] The Cape Colony was merged with the two Afrikaners republics in southern Africa to form the Union of South Africa in 1910. By this time, versions of pass laws existed elsewhere. A major boost for their utilization was the rise of the mining sector from the 1880s: pass laws provided a convenient means of controlling workers' mobility and enforcing contracts. In 1896
the South African Republic brought in two pass laws which required Africans to carry a metal badge. Only those employed by a master were permitted to remain on the Rand. Those entering a "labour district" needed a special pass which entitled them to remain for three days.[98] The Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923 deemed urban areas in South Africa as "white" and required all black
African men in cities and towns to carry around permits called "passes" at all times. Anyone found without a pass would be arrested immediately and sent to a rural area. It was replaced in 1945 by the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act, which imposed "influx control" on black men and also set up guidelines for removing people deemed to be living idle lives from urban areas. This act
outlined requirements for African peoples' "qualification" to reside legally in white metropolitan areas. To do so, they had to have Section 10 rights, based on whether[99]
the person had been born there and resided there always since birth;
the person had laboured continuously for ten years in any agreed area for any employer, or lived continuously in any such area for fifteen years;
The Black (Natives) Laws Amendment Act of 1952 amended the 1945 Native Urban Areas Consolidation Act, stipulating that all black people over the age of 16 were required to carry passes and that no black person could stay in an urban area more than 72 hours unless allowed to by Section 10.[100] The Natives (Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of Documents) Act of 1952, commonly known as
the Pass Laws Act, repealed the many regional pass laws and instituted one nationwide pass law, which made it compulsory for all black South Africans over the age of 16 to carry the "passbook" at all times within white areas. The law stipulated where, when, and for how long a person could remain.[101]
The document was similar to an internal passport, containing details on the bearer such as their fingerprints, photograph, the name of his/her employer, his/her address, how long the bearer had been employed, as well as other identification information. Employers often entered a behavioural evaluation, on the conduct of the pass holder. An employer was defined under the law and could
only be a white person. The pass also documented permission requested and denied or granted to be in a certain region and the reason for seeking such permission. Under the terms of the law, any government employee could strike out such entries, basically cancelling the permission to remain in the area. A passbook without a valid entry then allowed officials to arrest and imprison the
bearer of the pass. These passes often became the most despised symbols of apartheid. The resistance to the Pass Law led to many thousands of arrests and was the spark that ignited the Sharpeville Massacre on 21 March 1960, and led to the arrest of Robert Sobukwe that day.
Aspects
Contemporary border control policies are complex and address a variety of distinct phenomena depending on the circumstances and political priorities of the state(s) implementing them. Consequently, there are several aspects of border control which vary in nature and importance from region to region.
Biosecurity
Quarantine operations deployed by mainland Chinese border control.
An International Certificate of Vaccination issued by the Bureau of Quarantine in the Philippines to an individual after being vaccinated with a COVID-19 vaccine in 2021.
Main articles: Biosecurity, Quarantine, Travel restrictions related to the COVID-19 pandemic, and Vaccination requirements for international travel
Biosecurity refers to measures aimed at preventing the introduction and/or spread of harmful organisms (e.g. viruses, bacteria, etc.) to animals and plants in order to mitigate the risk of transmission of infectious disease. In agriculture, these measures are aimed at protecting food crops and livestock from pests, invasive species, and other organisms not conducive to the welfare of the
human population. The term includes biological threats to people, including those from pandemic diseases and bioterrorism. The definition has sometimes been broadened to embrace other concepts, and it is used for different purposes in different contexts.
The most common category of biosecurity policies are quarantine measures adopted to counteract the spread of disease and, when applied as a component of border control, focus primarily on mitigating the entry of infected individuals, plants, or animals into a country.[102] Other aspects of biosecurity related to border control include mandatory vaccination policies for inbound travellers
and measures to curtail the risk posed by bioterrorism or invasive species.
Quarantine measures are frequently implemented with regard to the mobility of animals, including both pets and livestock. Notably, in order to reduce the risk of introducing rabies from continental Europe, the United Kingdom used to require that dogs, and most other animals introduced to the country, spend six months in quarantine at an HM Customs and Excise pound. This policy was
abolished in 2000 in favour of a scheme generally known as Pet Passports, where animals can avoid quarantine if they have documentation showing they are up to date on their appropriate vaccinations.[103]
In the past, quarantine measures were implemented by European countries in order to curtail the Bubonic Plague and Cholera. In the British Isles, for example, the Quarantine Act 1710 (9 Ann.) established maritime quarantine policies in an era in which strict border control measures as a whole were yet to become mainstream.[104] The first act was called for due to fears that the plague
might be imported from Poland and the Baltic states. The second act of 1721 was due to the prevalence of the plague at Marseille and other places in Provence, France. It was renewed in 1733 after a new outbreak in continental Europe, and again in 1743, due to an epidemic in Messina. In 1752 a rigorous quarantine clause was introduced into an act regulating trade with the Levant, and
various arbitrary orders were issued during the next twenty years to meet the supposed danger of infection from the Baltic states. Although no plague cases ever came to England during that period, the restrictions on traffic became more stringent, and in 1788 a very strict Quarantine Act was passed, with provisions affecting cargoes in particular. The act was revised in 1801 and 1805,
and in 1823–24 an elaborate inquiry was followed by an act making quarantine only at the discretion of the Privy Council, which recognised yellow fever or other highly infectious diseases as calling for quarantine, along with plague. The threat of cholera in 1831 was the last occasion in England of the use of quarantine restrictions. Cholera affected every country in Europe despite all
efforts to keep it out. When cholera returned to England in 1849, 1853 and 1865–66, no attempt was made to seal the ports. In 1847 the privy council ordered all arrivals with a clean bill of health from the Black Sea and the Levant to be admitted, provided there had been no case of plague during the voyage and afterwards, the practice of quarantine was discontinued.[105]
In modern maritime law, biosecurity measures for arriving vessels centre around 'pratique', a licence from border control officials permitting a ship to enter port on assurance from the captain that that the vessel is free from contagious disease. The clearance granted is commonly referred to as 'free pratique'. A ship can signal a request for 'pratique' by flying a solid yellow
square-shaped flag. This yellow flag is the Q flag in the set of international maritime signal flags.[106] In the event that 'free pratique' is not granted, a vessel will be held in quarantine according to biosecurity rules prevailing at the port of entry until a border control officer inspects the vessel.[107] During the COVID-19 pandemic, a controversy arose as to who granted pratique
to the Ruby Princess.[108] A related concept is the 'bill of health', a document issued by officials of a port of departure indicating to the officials of the port of arrival whether it is likely that the ship is carrying a contagious disease, either literally on board as fomites or via its crewmen or passengers. As defined in a consul's handbook from 1879:
A bill of health is a document issued by the consul or the public authorities of the port which a ship sails from, descriptive of the health of the port at the time of the vessel's clearance. A clean bill of health certifies that at the date of its issue no infectious disease was known to exist either in the port or its neighbourhood. A suspected or touched bill of health reports that
rumours were in circulation that an infectious disease had appeared but that the rumour had not been confirmed by any known cases. A foul bill of health or the absence of a clean bill of health implies that the place the vessel cleared from was infected with a contagious disease. The two latter cases would render the vessel liable to quarantine.[109]
Another category of biosecurity measures adopted by border control organisations is mandatory vaccination. As a result of the prevalence of Yellow Fever across much of the African continent, a significant portion of countries in the region require arriving passengers to present an International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (Carte Jaune) certifying that they have received the
Yellow Fever vaccine. A variety of other countries require travellers who have visited areas where Yellow Fever is endemic to present a certificate in order to clear border checkpoints as a means of preventing the spread of the disease. Prior to the emergence of COVID-19, Yellow Fever was the primary human disease subjected to de facto vaccine passport measures by border control
authorities around the world. Similar measures are in place with regard to Polio and meningococcal meningitis in regions where those diseases are endemic and countries bordering those regions. Prior to the eradication of Smallpox, similar Carte Jaune requirements were in force for that disease around the world.
A road sign at an exit on Interstate 91 in Vermont advising individuals entering the state of a quarantine policy adopted in response to COVID-19, photographed in November 2020.
Slovakia, which otherwise maintains open borders with other Schengen Area jurisdictions, closed borders to non-residents because of the COVID-19 pandemic.
As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, biosecurity measures have become a highly visible aspect of border control across the globe. Most notably, quarantine and mandatory COVID-19 vaccination for international travellers. Together with a decreased willingness to travel, the implementation of biosecurity measures has had a negative economic and social impact on the travel industry.[110]
Slow travel increased in popularity during the pandemic, with tourists visiting fewer destinations during their trips.[111][112]
Biosecurity measures such as restrictions on cross-border travel, the introduction of mandatory vaccination for international travellers, and the adoption of quarantine or mandatory testing measures have helped to contain the spread of COVID-19.[113] While test-based border screening measures may prove effective under certain circumstances, they may fail to detect a significant quantity
positive cases if only conducted upon arrival without follow-up. A minimum 10-day quarantine may be beneficial in preventing the spread of COVID-19 and may be more effective if combined with an additional control measure like border screening.[113] A study in Science found that travel restrictions could delay the initial arrival of COVID-19 in a country, but that they produced only
modest overall effects unless combined with domestic infection prevention and control measures to considerably reduce transmissions.[114] (This is consistent with prior research on influenza and other communicable diseases.[115][116]) Travel bans early in the pandemic were most effective for isolated locations, such as small island nations.[116]
During the COVID-19 pandemic, many jurisdictions across the globe introduced biosecurity measures on internal borders. This ranged from quarantine measures imposed upon individuals crossing state lines within America to prohibitions on interstate travel in Australia.
Customs
Main article: Customs
North Korean customs officer at Pyongyang Sunan International Airport.
Southern edge (customs border) of Captain Cook wharf, Ports of Auckland, New Zealand. An electric fence is faintly visible behind the historical fence
Each country has its own laws and regulations for the import and export of goods into and out of a country, which its customs authority enforces. The import or export of some goods may be restricted or forbidden, in which case customs controls enforce such policies.[117] Customs enforcement at borders can also entail collecting excise tax and preventing the smuggling of dangerous or
illegal goods. A customs duty is a tariff or tax on the importation (usually) or exportation (unusually) of goods.
In many countries, border controls for arriving passengers at many international airports and some road crossings are separated into red and green channels in order to prioritise customs enforcement.[118][119] Within the European Union's common customs area, airports may operate additional blue channels for passengers arriving from within that area. For such passengers, border control
may focus specifically on prohibited items and other goods that are not covered by the common policy. Luggage tags for checked luggage travelling within the EU are green-edged so they may be identified.[120][121] In most EU member states, travellers coming from other EU countries within the Schengen Area can use the green lane, although airports outside the Schengen Area or with frequent
flights arriving from jurisdictions within Schengen but outside the European Union may use blue channels for convenience and efficiency.
Customs area
A customs area is an area designated for storage of commercial goods that have not cleared border controls for customs purposes. It is surrounded by a customs border. Commercial goods not yet cleared through customs are often stored in a type of customs area known as a bonded warehouse, until processed or re-exported.[122][123] Ports authorised to handle international cargo generally
include recognised bonded warehouses.
For the purpose of customs duties, goods within the customs area are treated as being outside the country. This allows easy transshipment to a third country without customs authorities being involved.[122] For this reason, customs areas are usually carefully controlled and fenced to prevent smuggling. However, the area is still territorially part of the country, so the goods within the
area are subject to other local laws (for example drug laws and biosecurity regulations), and thus may be searched, impounded or turned back.
The term is also sometimes used to define an area (usually composed of several countries) which form a customs union, a customs territory, or to describe the area at airports and ports where travellers are checked through customs.
Sanitary and phytosanitary measures
Main article: Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures are customs measures to protect humans, animals, and plants from diseases, pests, or contaminants. The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures is one of the final documents approved at the conclusion of the Uruguay Round of the Multilateral Trade Negotiations. It applies to all sanitary (relating to animals) and
phytosanitary (relating to plants) (SPS) measures that may have a direct or indirect impact on international trade. The SPS agreement includes a series of understandings (trade disciplines) on how SPS measures will be established and used by countries when they establish, revise, or apply their domestic laws and regulations. Per the agreement, states agree to base their SPS standards on
science, and as guidance for their actions, the agreement encourages countries to use standards set by international standard setting organisations. The SPS agreement seeks to ensure that SPS measures will not arbitrarily or unjustifiably discriminate against trade of certain other members nor be used to disguise trade restrictions. Per the agreement, countries maintain the sovereign
right to provide the level of health protection they deem appropriate, but agree that this right will not be misused for protectionist purposes nor result in unnecessary trade barriers. A rule of equivalency rather than equality applies to the use of SPS measures.
The 2012 classification of non-tariff measures (NTMs) developed by the Multi-Agency Support Team (MAST), a working group of eight international organisations, classifies SPS measures as one of 16 non-tariff measure (NTM) chapters. In this classification, SPS measures are classified as chapter A and defined as "Measures that are applied to protect human or animal life from risks arising
from additives, contaminants, toxins or disease-causing organisms in their food; to protect human life from plant- or animal-carried diseases; to protect animal or plant life from pests, diseases, or disease-causing organisms; to prevent or limit other damage to a country from the entry, establishment or spread of pests; and to protect biodiversity".[124] Examples of SPS are tolerance
limits for residues, restricted use of substances, labelling requirements related to food safety, hygienic requirements and quarantine requirements.
In certain countries, sanitary and phytosanitary measures focuses extensively on curtailing and regulating the import of foreign agricultural products in order to protect domestic ecosystems. For example, Australian border controls restrict most (if not all) food products, certain wooden products and other similar items.[125][126][127] Similar restrictions exist in Canada, America and
New Zealand.
Duty-free shops
Duty Free Shop at Pyongyang Sunan International Airport
Main article: Duty-free shop
Common at international airports and occasionally at seaports or land crossings, duty-free shops sell products tax-free to customers who have cleared exit border controls prior to boarding an international flight and, in some airports, to passengers arriving from overseas. Most countries impose limits on how much of each type of duty-free goods, may be purchased by each passenger. The
airport with the most duty-free sales is Seoul Incheon Airport with US$1.85 billion in 2016.[128] Dubai International Airport is second, recording transactions worth $1.82 billion in 2016.[129]
Air and maritime borders
In addition to land borders, countries also apply border control measures to airspace and waters under their jurisdiction. Such measures control access to air and maritime territory as well as extractible resources (e.g. fish, minerals, fossil fuels).
Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)[130], states exercise varying degrees of control over different categories of territorial waters:
Internal waters: Waters landward of the baseline[v], over which the state has complete sovereignty: not even innocent passage[w] is allowed without explicit permission from said state. Lakes and rivers are considered internal waters.
Territorial sea: A state's territorial sea is a belt of coastal waters extending at most 22 kilometres from the baseline[v] of a coastal state. If this would overlap with another state's territorial sea, the border is taken as the median point between the states' baselines, unless the states in question agree otherwise. A state can also choose to claim a smaller territorial sea. The
territorial sea is regarded as the sovereign territory of the state, although foreign ships (military and civilian) are allowed innocent passage through it, or transit passage for straits; this sovereignty also extends to the airspace over and seabed below. As a result of UNCLOS, states exercise a similar degree of control over its territorial sea as over land territory and may thus
utilise coast guard and naval patrols to enforce border control measures provided they do not prevent innocent or transit passage.
Contiguous zone: A state's contiguous zone is a band of water extending farther from the outer edge of the territorial sea to up to 44 kilometres from the baseline, within which a state can implement limited border control measures for the purpose of preventing or punishing "infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations within its territory or
territorial sea". This will typically be 22 kilometres wide, but could be more (if a state has chosen to claim a territorial sea of less than 22 kilometres), or less, if it would otherwise overlap another state's contiguous zone. However, unlike the territorial sea, there is no standard rule for resolving such conflicts and the states in question must negotiate their own compromise. The
United States invoked a contiguous zone out to 44 kilometres from the baseline on 29 September 1999.[131]
Exclusive economic zone An exclusive economic zone extends from the baseline[v] to a maximum of 370 kilometres. A coastal nation has control of all economic resources within its exclusive economic zone, including fishing, mining, oil exploration, and any pollution of those resources. However, it cannot prohibit passage or loitering above, on, or under the surface of the sea that is in
compliance with the laws and regulations adopted by the coastal State in accordance with the provisions of the UN Convention, within that portion of its exclusive economic zone beyond its territorial sea. The only authority a state has over its EEZ is therefore its ability to regulate the extraction or spoliation of resources contained therein and border control measures implemented to
this effect focus on the suppression of unauthorised commercial activity.
Vessels not complying with a state's maritime policies may be subject to ship arrest and enforcement action by the state's authorities. Maritime border control measures are controversial in the context of international trade disputes, as was the case following France's detention of British fishermen in October 2021 in the aftermath of Brexit[132][133] or when the Indonesian navy detained
the crew of the Seven Seas Conqueress alleging that the vessel was unlawfully fishing within Indonesian territorial waters while the Singaporean government claimed the vessel was in Singaporean waters near Pedra Branca.[134]
Similarly, international law accords each state control over the airspace above its land territory, internal waters, and territorial sea. Consequently, states have the authority to regulate flyover rights and tax foreign aircraft utilising their airspace. Additionally, the International Civil Aviation Organisation designates states to administer international airspace, including airspace
over waters not forming part of any state's territorial sea. Aircraft unlawfully entering a country's airspace may be grounded and their crews may be detained.
Many countries implement air defence identification zones (ADIZs) requiring aircraft approaching within a specified distance of its airspace to contact or seek prior authorisation from its military or transport authorities.[135] An ADIZ may extend beyond a country's territory to give the country more time to respond to possibly hostile aircraft.[136] The concept of an ADIZ is not defined
in any international treaty and is not regulated by any international body,[136][137] but is nevertheless a well-established aerial border control measure.[x] Usually such zones only cover undisputed territory, do not apply to foreign aircraft not intending to enter territorial airspace, and do not overlap.[137][140]
Border security
The border fence built by India, as seen from near the Hili border station on the Bangladeshi side.
Border security measures are measures taken by a country or group of countries to enforce its border control policies.[141] Such measures target a variety of issues, ranging from customs violations and trade in unlawful goods to the suppression of unauthorised migration or travel. The specific border security measures taken by a jurisdiction vary depending on the priorities of local
authorities and are affected by social, economic, and geographical factors.
In India, which maintains free movement with Nepal and Bhutan, border security focuses primarily on the Bangladeshi, Pakistani, and Myanmar borders. In order to deter unlawful immigration and drug trafficking from Bangladesh,[142] India is constructing the India-Bangladesh barrier. On the Pakistani border, the Border Security Force aims to prevent the infiltration of Indian territory by
terrorists from Pakistan and other countries in the west (Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, etc.). In contrast, India's border with Myanmar is porous and the 2021 military coup in Myanmar saw an influx of refugees seeking asylum in border states including Mizoram.[143] The refoulement of Rohingya refugees is a contentious aspect of India's border control policy vis à vis Myanmar.[144]
Mexico–United States barrier in California
United States border security policy is largely centred on the country's border with Mexico. Security along this border is composed of many distinct elements; including physical barriers, patrol routes, lighting, and border patrol personnel. Former president Donald Trump's proposal to build a new wall along the border formed a major feature of his 2016 presidential campaign and, over the
course of his presidency, his administration spent approximately US$15 billion on the project, with US$5 billion appropriated from US Customs and Border Protection, US$6.3 billion appropriated from anti-narcotics initiative funded by congress, and US$3.6 billion appropriated from the American military.[145] Members of both the Democratic Republican parties who opposed President Trump's
border control policies, regarded the border wall as unnecessary or undesirable, arguing that other measures would be more effective at reducing illegal immigration than building a wall, including tackling the economic issues that lead to immigration being a relevant issue altogether, border surveillance or an increase in the number of customs agents.[146]
Similar to India's barrier with Bangladesh and the proposed wall between America and Mexico, Iran has constructed a wall on its frontier with Pakistan. The wall aims to reduce unauthorised border crossings[147] and stem the flow of drugs,[148] and is also a response to terrorist attacks, notably the one in the Iranian border town of Zahedan on 17 February 2007, which killed thirteen
people, including nine Iranian Revolutionary Guard officials.[149]
Hungarian border barrier with Serbia
Border security has, over the first two decades of the century, also become a major concern in the Schengen Area, specifically as a result of the European migrant crisis. The walls at Melilla and at Ceuta on Spain's border with Morocco are a part of the trend towards increasing border security in response to an unprecedented rise in both refugees and economic migrants from countries in
Sub Saharan Africa. Similar, though less drastic, measures have been taken on the Schengen area's borders with Turkey in response to the refugee crisis created in Syria by terrorist organisations such as Daesh and the Syrian Free Army. The creation of European Union's collective border security organisation, Frontex, is another aspect of the bloc's growing focus on border security.
Within the Schengen Area, border security has become an especially prominent priority for the Hungarian government under right-wing strongman[150][151] Viktor Orbán. Hungary completed the construction of 175 kilometres of fencing between with Serbia in September 2015 and on the border with Croatia in October 2015 to stop unauthorised border crossings.[152] In April 2016, Hungarian
government announced construction of reinforcements of the barrier, which it described as "temporary".[153] In July 2016, nearly 1,300 migrants were "stuck" on the Serbian side of the border.[154] In August 2016, Orbán announced that Hungary will build another larger barrier on its southern border.[155] On 28 April 2017, the Hungarian government announced it had completed a second
fence, 155 kilometres long with Serbia.[156][157] On 24 September 2015, Hungary began building fence on its border with Slovenia, in the area around Tornyiszentmiklós–Pince border crossing.[158] The razor wire obstacle was removed two days later.[159] As of March 2016, everything is in place if Hungary decides to build a border barrier on the Hungarian–Romanian border – the
military is "only waiting for the command from the government".[160]
Another example of border security is the Israeli anti-tunnel barrier along its border with the Gaza Strip, a part of the State of Palestine under the control of Hamas (a militant group backed by the Muslim Brotherhood, a Qatari-sponsored militant group). In order to curtail Hamas's ability to build tunnels into Israeli-controlled territory, Israel have built a slurry wall. Similarly,
Saudi Arabia has begun construction of a border barrier or fence between its territory and Yemen to prevent the unauthorized movement of people and goods. The difference between the countries' economic situations means that many Yemenis head to Saudi Arabia to find work. Saudi Arabia does not have a barrier with its other neighbours in the Gulf Cooperation Council, whose economies are
more similar. In 2006 Saudi Arabia proposed constructing a security fence along the entire length of its 900 kilometre long desert border with Iraq in a multimillion-dollar project to secure the Kingdom's borders in order to improve internal security, control illegal immigration, and bolster its defences against external threats.[161] As of July 2009 it was reported that Saudis will pay
$3.5 billion for security fence.[162] The combined wall and ditch will be 965 kilometres long and include five layers of fencing, watch towers, night-vision cameras, and radar cameras and manned by 30,000 troops.[163] Elsewhere in Europe, the Republic of Macedonia began erecting a fence on its border with Greece in November 2015.[164] On the land border between Palestine and the portion
of the Sinai peninsula administered by the African nation of Egypt, the latter began construction of a border barrier in 2009 prompted by concern that militant organisations were making use of the Gaza Strip smuggling tunnels to move weapons and personnel between Gaza and Egypt.[165]
In 2003, Botswana began building a 480 kilometre long electric fence along its border with Zimbabwe. The official reason for the fence is to stop the spread of foot-and-mouth disease among livestock. Zimbabweans argue that the height of the fence is clearly intended to keep out people. Botswana has responded that the fence is designed to keep out cattle, and to ensure that entrants have
their shoes disinfected at legal border crossings. Botswana also argued that the government continues to encourage legal movement into the country. Zimbabwe was unconvinced, and the barrier remains a source of tension.[166]
Border checkpoints
Main articles: Border checkpoint, Port of entry, and International airport
Sultan Iskandar Building, Johor Bahru, Malaysia
Sultan Iskandar Building
Woodlands Checkpoint, Singapore
Woodlands Checkpoint
The Sultan Iskandar Building (Malaysia) and Woodlands Checkpoint (Singapore) on the Malaysia–Singapore border handles the busiest international land border crossing in the world, with 350,000 travellers daily prior to the COVID-19 pandemic.[167][168]
The International Terminal at San Francisco International Airport is an airport of entry for travellers entering America and has border checkpoint facilities for arriving passengers. Like most North American airports, it does not have a sterile international transit area. Domestic and international passengers are thus not clearly separated. This enables easier transfers from domestic to
international flights but requires international transit passengers to clear the border checkpoint even if their final destination is outside America.
A Border checkpoint is a place where goods or individuals moving across borders are inspected for compliance with border control measures. Access-controlled borders often have a limited number of checkpoints where they can be crossed without legal sanctions. Arrangements or treaties may be formed to allow or mandate less restrained crossings (e.g. the Schengen Agreement). Land border
checkpoints (land ports of entry) can be contrasted with the customs and immigration facilities at seaports, international airports, and other ports of entry.
Checkpoints generally serve two purposes:
To prevent entrance of individuals who are either undesirable (e.g. criminals or others who pose threats) or simply unauthorised to enter.
To prevent entrance of goods that are illegal or subject to restriction, or to collect tariffs in accordance with customs or quarantine policies.
Port of entry
A border checkpoint at which travellers are permitted to enter a jurisdiction is known as a port of entry. International airports are usually ports of entry, as are road and rail crossings on a land border. Seaports can be used as ports of entry only if a dedicated customs presence is posted there. The choice of whether to become a port of entry is up to the civil authority controlling
the port.
An airport of entry is an airport that provides customs and immigration services for incoming flights. These services allow the airport to serve as an initial port of entry for foreign visitors arriving in a country. While the terms airport of entry and international airport are generally used interchangeably, not all international airports qualify as airports of entry since
international airports without any immigration or customs facilities exist in the Schengen Area whose members have eliminated border controls with each other. Airports of entry are usually larger than domestic airports and often feature longer runways and facilities to accommodate the heavier aircraft commonly used for international and intercontinental travel. International airports
often also host domestic flights, which often help feed both passengers and cargo into international ones (and vice-versa). Buildings, operations and management have become increasingly sophisticated since the mid-20th century, when international airports began to provide infrastructure for international civilian flights. Detailed technical standards have been developed to ensure safety
and common coding systems implemented to provide global consistency. The physical structures that serve millions of individual passengers and flights are among the most complex and interconnected in the world. By the second decade of the 21st century, there were over 1,200 international airports and almost two billion international passengers along with 50 million tonnes of cargo passing
through them annually.
In order to exempt passengers transitting between international flights from clearing border checkpoints, most international airports outside North America feature a "sterile lounge", an area after security checkpoints within which passengers are free to move freely and which is generally deemed to be outside the immigration and customs area of the country in which the airport situated.
In addition to employees, only processed passengers with a valid ticket are allowed inside the sterile lounge.[169]
Sterile lounge at Changi Airport Terminal 3 in Singapore. Passengers transitting between international flights at Terminals 1, 2, and 3 of Changi Airport disembark directly into the sterile lounge, may proceed to their connecting gate without clearing the border checkpoint or completing any other border control formality, and can move between the sterile lounge areas of each terminal
using the Skytrain without passing through any checkpoint.
 
A port of entry at Shir Khan Bandar in northern Afghanistan near the Tajikistan border guarded by American military personnel prior to their withdrawal from Afghanistan, following which the Taliban assumed control over border checkpoints between Afghanistan and its neighbours.
 
The Hong Kong–Macau Ferry Terminal in Sheung Wan is a sea port of entry to Hong Kong and an example of an internal border checkpoint where travellers arriving from or departing for other cities in the Pearl River Delta are subjected to border control measures.
 
The cruise-ship pier at Ocean Terminal is also a sea port of entry to Hong Kong. While the HK-Macau Ferry Terminal serves as a port of entry for travellers from other Chinese cities in the Pearl River Delta, the Ocean Terminal serves as a port of entry for visitors arriving via cruise ship from a wider variety of jurisdictions.
Quilantan entry
A 'Quilantan' or 'Wave Through' entry is a phenomenon at American border checkpoints authorising a form of non-standard but legal entry without any inspection of travel documents. It occurs when the border security personnel present at a border crossing choose to summarily admit some number of persons without performing a standard interview or document examination.[170]
Typically this can occur when an official border crossing is busy and an immigration officer waves a car through without first checking all passengers for their travel documents. If an individual can prove that they were waved through immigration in this manner, then they are considered to have entered with inspection despite not having answered any questions or received a passport entry
stamp.[171]
This definition of legal entry does not apply to situations where foreigners entered America but have not crossed at a legal, manned border station. Thus it does not provide a path to legal residency for those who have entered America by crossing accidental gaps in the borders around geological formations.[172]
Border zones
Border zones are areas near borders that have special restrictions on movement. Governments may forbid unauthorised entry to or exit from border zones and restrict property ownership in the area. The zones function as buffer zones specifically monitored by border patrols in order to prevent unauthorised cross-border travel. Border zones enable authorities to detain and prosecute
individuals suspected of being or aiding undocumented migrants, smugglers, or spies without necessarily having to prove that the individuals in question actually engaged in the suspected unauthorised activity since, as all unauthorised presence in the area is forbidden, the mere presence of an individual permits authorities to arrest them. Border zones between hostile states can be
heavily militarised, with minefields, barbed wire, and watchtowers. Some border zones are designed to prevent illegal immigration or emigration and do not have many restrictions but may operate checkpoints to check immigration status. In most places, a border vista is usually included and/or required. In some nations, movement inside a border zone without a licence is an offence and will
result in arrest. No probable cause is required as mere presence inside the zone is an offence, if it is intentional.[173] Even with a licence to enter, photography, making fires, and carrying of firearms and hunting are prohibited.
Examples of international border zones are the Border Security Zone of Russia and the Finnish border zone on the Finnish–Russian border. There are also intra-country zones such as the Cactus Curtain surrounding the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba, the Korean Demilitarised Zone along the North Korea-South Korea demarcation line and the Frontier Closed Area in Hong Kong. Important
historical examples are the Wire of Death set up by the German Empire to control the Belgium–Netherlands border and the Iron Curtain, a set of border zones maintained by the Soviet Union and its satellite states along their borders with Western states. One of the most militarised parts was the restricted zone of the inner German border. While initially and officially the zone was for
border security, eventually it was engineered to prevent escape from the Soviet sphere into the West. Ultimately, the Eastern Bloc governments resorted to using lethal countermeasures against those trying to cross the border, such as mined fences and orders to shoot anyone trying to cross into the West. The restrictions on building and habitation made the area a "green corridor", today
established as the European Green Belt.
In the area stretching inwards from its internal border with the mainland, Hong Kong maintains a Frontier Closed Area out of bounds to those without special authorisation. The area was established in the 1950s when Hong Kong was under British administration as a consequence of the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory prior to the Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong in
1997. The purposes of the area were to prevent illegal immigration and smuggling; smuggling had become prevalent as a consequence of the Korean War. Today, under the one country, two systems policy, the area continues to be used to curtail unauthorised migration to Hong Kong and the smuggling of goods in either direction.
As a result of the partition of the Korean peninsula by America and the Soviet Union after World War II, and exacerbated by the subsequent Korean War, there is a Demilitarised Zone (DMZ) spanning the de facto border between North and South Korea. The DMZ follows the effective boundaries as of the end of the Korean War in 1953. Similarly to the Frontier Closed Area in Hong Kong, this zone
and the defence apparatus that exists on both sides of the border serve to curtail unauthorised passage between the two sides.
In South Korea, there is an additional fenced-off area between the Civilian Control Line (CCL) and the start of the Demilitarised Zone. The CCL is a line that designates an additional buffer zone to the Demilitarised Zone within a distance of 5 to 20 kilometres from the Southern Limit Line of the Demilitarised Zone. Its purpose is to limit and control the entrance of civilians into the
area in order to protect and maintain the security of military facilities and operations near the Demilitarised Zone. The commander of the 8th US Army ordered the creation of the CCL and it was activated and first became effective in February 1954.[174] The buffer zone that falls south of the Southern Limit Line is called the Civilian Control Zone. Barbed wire fences and manned military
guard posts mark the CCLe. South Korean soldiers typically accompany tourist busses and cars travelling north of the CCL as armed guards to monitor the civilians as well as to protect them from North Korean intruders. Most of the tourist and media photos of the "Demilitarised Zone fence" are actually photos of the CCL fence. The actual Demilitarised Zone fence on the Southern Limit Line
is completely off-limits to everybody except soldiers and it is illegal to take pictures of the Demilitarised Zone fence.
Some border zones, referred to as border vistas, are composed of legally mandated cleared space between two areas of foliage located at an international border intended to provide a clear demarcation line between two jurisdictions. Border vistas are most commonly found along undefended international boundary lines, where border security is not as much of a necessity and a built barrier
is undesired, and are a treaty requirement for certain borders. An example of a border vista is a six-metre cleared space around unguarded portions of the Canada–United States border.[175] Similar clearings along the border line are provided for by many international treaties. For example, the 2006 border management treaty between Russia and China provides for a 15-metre cleared strip
along the two nations' border.[176]
The border vista along the Canada–United States border, as seen from a wayside on the Alaska Highway.
 
Control Line, Imjingak, Paju, South Korea
 
A South Korean checkpoint at the Civilian Control Line, located outside of the Demilitarised Zone
 
Korean Demilitarised Zone as seen from the North
 
Frontier Closed Area signboard at Lo Wu
 
Border zone in Brest with a security electric fence, a ploughed trace-control strip and a pillbox.
 
Border zone marked on a tree on the Finland–Russia border: no entry.
Drugs
Singapore arrival card warning visitors about the death penalty for drug trafficking.
Border control in many Asian countries prioritise mitigating trade in narcotics. For instance, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia impose mandatory death sentences on individuals caught smuggling restricted substances across their borders. For example, Muhammad Ridzuan Ali was executed in Singapore on 19 May 2017 for drug trafficking.[177] India and Malaysia are focusing
resources on eliminating drug smuggling from Myanmar and Thailand respectively. The issue stems largely from the high output of dangerous and illegal drugs in the Golden Triangle as well as in regions further west such as Afghanistan.
A similar problem exists east of the Pacific, and has resulted in countries such as Mexico and America tightening border control in response to the northward flow of illegal substances from regions such as Colombia. The Mexican Drug War and similar cartel activity in neighbouring areas has exacerbated the problem.
Immigration law and policy
Main article: Immigration law
Immigration law refers to the national statutes, regulations, and legal precedents governing immigration into and deportation from a country. Strictly speaking, it is distinct from other matters such as naturalisation and citizenship, although they are often conflated. Immigration laws vary around the world, as well as according to the social and political climate of the times, as
acceptance of immigrants sways from the widely inclusive to the deeply nationalist and isolationist. Countries frequently maintain laws which regulate both the rights of entry and exit as well as internal rights, such as the duration of stay, freedom of movement, and the right to participate in commerce or government. National laws regarding the immigration of citizens of that country
are regulated by international law. While the United Nations' International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights mandates[178] that all countries allow entry to their own citizens, this principle is not always respected in practice. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Australia adopted a policy of denying entry to all individuals in particularly affected jurisdictions,
including Australian citizens and permanent residents.[179][180] Similarly, while states within the Schengen Area typically permit freedom of movement across borders, many states within the area implemented ad hoc border controls during the pandemic.
Immigration policy is the aspect of border control concerning the transit of people into a country, especially those that intend to stay and work in the country. Taxation, tariff and trade rules set out what goods immigrants may bring with them, and what services they may perform while temporarily in the country. Investment policy sometimes permits wealthy immigrants to invest in
businesses in exchange for favourable treatment and eventual naturalisation. Agricultural policy may make exemptions for migrant farm workers, who typically enter a country only for the harvest season and then return home to a country or region in the Global South (such as Mexico or Jamaica from where America and Canada, respectively, often import temporary agricultural labour).[181] An
important aspect of immigration policy is the treatment of refugees,[182] more or less helpless or stateless people who throw themselves on the mercy of the state they try to enter, seeking refuge from actual or purported poor treatment in their country of origin. Asylum is sometimes granted to those who face persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion,
nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion.
Diaspora communities
An OCI booklet exempting its bearer from usual immigration controls in India.
Karta Polaka – specimen document
Certain countries adopt immigration policies designed to be favourable towards members of diaspora communities with a connection to the country. For example, the Indian government confers Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) status on foreign citizens of Indian origin to live and work indefinitely in India. OCI status was introduced in response to demands for dual citizenship by the
Indian diaspora, particularly in countries with large populations of Indian origin. It was introduced by The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2005 in August 2005.[183][184] In the ASEAN region, a large portion of the Singaporean, Malaysian, and Bruneian population hold OCI status. Large OCI communities also exist in North America, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as in
many African nations (particularly South Africa, Madagascar, and members of the East African Community). OCI status exempts holders from immigration controls generally imposed upon others of the same nationality.
Similarly, Poland issues the Karta Polaka to citizens of certain northeast European countries with Polish ancestry.
A British Ancestry visa is a document issued by the United Kingdom to Commonwealth citizens with a grandparent born in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands or Isle of Man who wish to work in the United Kingdom. Similar to OCI status, it exempts members of the country's diaspora from usual immigration controls. It is used mainly by Australians, New Zealanders, Canadians, and South Africans
of British descent working or studying in the United Kingdom.[185]
Some nations recognise a right of return for people with ancestry in that country or a connection to a particular ethnic group. A notable example of this is the right of Sephardi Jews to acquire Spanish nationality by virtue of their community's Spanish origins. Similar exemptions to immigration controls exist for people of Armenian origin seeking to acquire Armenian citizenship. Ghana,
similarly, grants an indefinite right to stay in Ghana to members of the African diaspora regardless of citizenship.[186] Similarly, Israel maintains a policy permitting members of the Jewish diaspora to immigrate to Israel regardless of prior nationality.
South Korean immigration policy is relatively unique in that, as a consequence of its claim over the territory currently administered by North Korea, citizens of North Korea are regarded by the South as its own citizens by birth.[187] Consequently, North Korean refugees in China often attempt to travel to countries such as Thailand which, while not offering asylum to North Koreans,
classifies them as unauthorised immigrants and deports them to South Korea instead of North Korea.[188][189][190] At the same time, this policy has operated to prevent pro-North Korea Zainichi Koreans recognised by Japan as Chōsen-seki from entering South Korea without special permission from the South Korean authorities as, despite being regarded as citizens of the Republic of Korea
and members of the Korean diaspora, they generally refuse to exercise that status.[191]
Special immigration areas
In various special immigration areas around the world, border control policies can range from severely limiting migration, as in Greece's Mount Athos, to allowing most types of migration, such as the free migration[y] policy in force in Svalbard. Similar policies are in force for Iran's Kish and Qeshm islands, and for Iraqi Kurdistan.
Local border traffic
The front of the updated version of the Border Crossing Card issued to Mexican nationals
Local border traffic or small border traffic is the flow of travellers within the area surrounding a controlled international or internal border. In many cases local border traffic is subject to bilateral regulation aimed at the simplification of border crossing for individuals travelling within a designated area surrounding the border.[193] In certain cases, this entails adopting border
control policies imposing reduced border controls for frequent travellers intending to remain within a border area. Depending on the particular border in question, these measures may be restricted to local residents, implemented as a blanket regional visa waiver by one jurisdiction for nationals of the other, or available to individuals lawfully present in one jurisdiction seeking to
visit the other.
For example, the relaxed border controls maintained by Bhutan for those not proceeding past Phuentsholing and certain other border cities enable travellers to enter without going through any document check whatsoever. The Border Crossing Card issued by American authorities to Mexican nationals enables Mexicans to enter border areas without a passport.[z] Both America and Bhutan maintain
interior checkposts to enforce compliance.
China maintains relaxed border controls for individuals lawfully in Hong Kong or Macau to visit the surrounding Pearl River Delta visa-free, provided that the following conditions are met:[196]
The visitor is a national of a country which has diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China
The visitor is visiting the Pearl River Delta as part of a tour group organised by a Hong Kong or Macau based travel agency
The stay is for six days or less
The visitor stays only within the cities of Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Foshan, Dongguan, Zhongshan, Jiangmen, Zhaoqing, Huizhou and Shantou.
In Belarus, the "Brest – Grodno" visa free territory, established by a presidential decree signed in August 2019 has permitted local visa free access to most visitors lawfully present in the neighbouring Schengen Area since 10 November 2019.[197][198] Visitors are allowed to stay without a visa for 15 days. Entry is possible through the following checkpoints with Poland and Lithuania -
Brest (Terespol), Bruzgi (Kuźnica), Damačava (Sławatycze), Bieniakoni (Šalčininkai), Bierastavica (Bobrowniki), Piasčatka (Połowce), Pryvalka (Raigardas), Piareraŭ (Białowieża), Liasnaja (Rudawka), Pryvalka (Švendubrė), Brest-Uschodni Railway Station, Grodno Railway Station, Brest Airport and Grodno Airport. Prior to travel, visitors must obtain an appropriate document[199]
issued by a local travel agency registered in Belarus.
Similarly, Schengen states which share an external land border with a non-Schengen state are authorised by virtue of the EU Regulation 1931/2006 to conclude or maintain bilateral agreements with neighbouring third countries for the purpose of implementing a unilateral or reciprocal local border traffic regime.[200] Such agreements define a border area on either side of the border, and
provide for the issuance of local border traffic permits to residents of the border area. Permits may be used to cross the EU external border within the border area, are not stamped on crossing the border and must display the holder's name and photograph, as well as a statement that its holder is not authorised to move outside the border area and that any abuse shall be subject to
penalties.
Often, additional border crossing points are created to carry only local border traffic.
Immigrant investor programmes
Immigrant investor programmes are border control policies that offer permanent residence or citizenship in return for investment.[201][202][203] Immigrant investor programmes originated in the 1980s when tax havens in the Pacific and Caribbean began "cash-for-passport" programmes that facilitated visa-free travel and tax avoidance.[204] Such programmes have sparked controversy in several
countries. A lack of demonstrable economic benefits, and security concerns, have been among the most common criticisms. In 2014 the Canadian government suspended their golden visa programme (although, as of 2017, Quebec maintains its own golden visa programme).[205] The implementation of such programmes in Europe has been criticised by the European Parliament,[206] which approved a
non-binding resolution that in 2014 declaring that an EU passport, which by definition provides its bearer the right to reside in any EU or EEA jurisdiction, should not have a "price tag".[207]
Open borders
Main article: Open border
An open border is the deregulation and or lack of regulation on the movement of persons between nations and jurisdictions, this does not apply to trade or movement between privately owned land areas.[208] Most nations have open borders for travel within their nation of travel, though more authoritarian states may limit the freedom of internal movement of its citizens, as for example in
the former USSR. However, only a handful of nations have deregulated open borders with other nations, an example of this being European countries under the Schengen Agreement or the open Belarus-Russia border.[209] Open borders used to be very common among all nations, however this became less common after the First World War, which led to the regulation of open borders, making them less
common and no longer feasible for most industrialised nations.[210]
Open borders are the norm for borders between subdivisions within the boundaries of sovereign states, though some countries do maintain internal border controls (for example between the People's Republic of China mainland and the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau, or between the United States and the unincorporated territories of Guam, the Northern Marianas and
American Samoa, and the Minor Outlying Islands). Open borders are also usual between member states of federations, though (very rarely) movement between member states may be controlled in exceptional circumstances.[aa] Federations, confederations and similar multi-national unions typically maintain external border controls through a collective border control system, though they sometimes
have open borders with other non-member states through special international agreements – such as between Schengen Agreement countries as mentioned above.
Presently, open border agreements of various types are in force in several areas around the world, as outlined below:
Asia and Oceania:
Under the 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship, India and Nepal maintain a similar arrangement to the CTA and the Union State. Indians and Nepalis are not subject to any migration controls in each other's countries and there are few controls on land travel by citizens across the border.
India and Bhutan also have a similar programme in place The border between Jaigaon, in the Indian state of West Bengal, and the city of Phuentsholing is essentially open, and although there are internal checkpoints, Indians (as outlined under the Visa policy of Bhutan are allowed to proceed throughout Bhutan with a voter's ID or an identity slip from the Indian consulate in
Phuentsholing. Similarly, Bhutanese passport holders enjoy free movement in India.
Thailand and Cambodia: Whilst not as liberal as the policies concerning the Indo-Nepalese and Indo-Bhutanese borders, Thailand and Cambodia have begun issuing combined visas to certain categories of tourists applying at specific Thai or Cambodian embassies and consulates in order to enable freer border crossings between the two countries.[211] The policy is currently in force for
nationals of America and several European (primarily EU, EEA, and GCC) and Oceanian countries as well as for Indian and Chinese nationals residing in Singapore.[212]
Australia and New Zealand: Similar to the agreement between India and Nepal, Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement between Australia and New Zealand is a free movement agreement citizens of each country to travel freely between them and allowing citizens and some permanent residents to reside, visit, work, study in the other country for an indefinite period, with some restrictions.[213][214]
The arrangement came into effect in 1973, and allows citizens of each country to reside and work in the other country, with some restrictions. Other details of the arrangement have varied over time. From 1 July 1981, all people entering Australia (including New Zealand citizens) have been required to carry a passport. Since 1 September 1994 Australia, has had a universal visa
requirement, and to specifically cater for the continued free movement of New Zealanders to Australia, the Special Category Visa was introduced for New Zealanders.
Central America :The Central America-4 Border Control Agreement abolishes border controls for land travel between El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala. However, this does not apply to air travel.
Europe and the Middle East
Union State of Russia and Belarus The Union State of Russia and Belarus is a supranational union of Russia and Belarus, which eliminates all border controls between the two nations. Before a visa agreement was signed in 2020, each country maintained its own visa policies, thus resulting in non-citizens of the two countries generally being barred from travelling directly between the two.
However, since the visa agreement was signed, each side recognises the other's visas, which means that third-country citizens can enter both countries with a visa from either country.[215]
Western Europe: The two most significant free travel areas in Western Europe are the Schengen Area, in which very little if any border control is generally visible, and the Common Travel Area (CTA), which partially eliminates such controls for nationals of the United Kingdom and Ireland. Between countries in the Schengen Area, and to an extent within the CTA on the British Isles,
internal border control is often virtually unnoticeable, and often only performed by means of random car or train searches in the hinterland, while controls at borders with non-member states may be rather strict.
Gulf Cooperation Council: Members of the Gulf Cooperation Council, or GCC, allow each other's citizens freedom of movement in an arrangement similar to the CTA and to that between India and Nepal. Between 5 June 2017 and 5 January 2021, freedom of movement in Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Bahrain was suspended for Qataris as a result of the Saudi-led blockade of the country.
A New Zealand visa stamp issued under Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement on an Australian travel document.
 
Visa policy of Bhutan, showing the free movement arrangement between India and Bhutan
 
Visa policy of Nepal, showing free movement between India and Nepal under the 1950 treaty
 
Irish border at Killeen (within CTA) marked only by a metric speed sign, as the Republic of Ireland uses the metric system whilst British road signs use imperial units
 
Sign often found at crossings from the Republic of Ireland into the North.
 
Open Schengen Area border crossing between Germany and the Netherlands
 
Open Schengen Area border crossing at the France-Monaco border (was open long before Schengen started)
 
Open Schengen Area border crossing at the Swiss-Lichtenstein border (was open long before Schengen started)
 
Open Schengen Area border crossing at the Slovenian-Italian border, with abandoned rain shelter.
 
Two road-signs on the side of an open stretch of a two-lane highway.
A typical Schengen internal border crossing has no border control post and only a common EU-state sign displaying the name of the country being entered, as here between Germany and Austria. The larger blue sign announces entry to the Federal Republic of Germany in German, the smaller white sign announces entry into the German state of Bavaria.
International zones
An international zone is a type of extraterritorial area not fully subject to any country's border control policies. The term most commonly refers to the areas of international airports after border exit controls or before border entry controls. These areas often contain duty-free shopping, but they are not fully extraterritorial. It is usually possible to transfer between flights
without needing either the passport check or visa otherwise needed to enter the country. In areas of conflict there may be international zones called green zones that form protective enclaves to keep diplomats safe. Countries in conflict may also have international zones separating each other. Some of the international zones are subject to international law.
Airport transit areas
The international zone in an international airport is the area where arriving international passengers have not formally entered the country by clearing arrival customs and immigration controls, and departing passengers have formally exited the country by clearing exit immigration control. Transit passengers can usually take connecting international flights in the international zone
without clearing customs and immigration controls, and in most cases do not require a visa.[216][217][218] Some countries, however, require transit passengers of certain nationalities to hold a direct airside transit visa[219] even when they would not need to pass through border controls. In addition, some countries, notably Canada, Russia and South Africa, perform document checks by
border officers in the international transit corridor, for which a visa may (e.g. Canada) or may not (e.g. Russia) be required.
Two major exceptions are America and Canada, where airports typically have no international transit zones. All passengers arriving on international flights are subject to customs and immigration inspections. Nationals of countries other than America and Canada at an American airport requires at least a C-1 transit visa, or ESTA for eligible travellers. Meanwhile, transiting at a Canadian
airport for nationals of countries other than Canada or America generally requires a visa or Electronic Travel Authorisation except for individuals proceeding to or from America who qualify for the China Transit Programme or Transit Without Visa Programme.
A common feature of the international zone is duty-free shopping for departing and transit passengers, and in some cases arriving passengers subject to duty-free allowances.
International zones in airports are fully under the jurisdiction of the country where they are located and local laws apply. Persons caught committing an unlawful act (e.g. possession of contraband such as illegal drugs) in the international zone are liable for prosecution.
Other examples
The United Nations' Headquarters are a series of complexes in New York City (United States), Geneva (Switzerland), Vienna (Austria), and Nairobi (Kenya)[220] that exist on international territories administered by the United Nations, while still subject to most local and national laws.[221]
The whole estuary of the Han River in the Korean Peninsula is deemed a "Neutral Zone" and is officially off-limits to all civilian vessels. Only military vessels are allowed within this neutral zone. According to the July 1953 Korean Armistice Agreement civil shipping was supposed to be permissible in the Han River estuary and allow Seoul to be connected to the Yellow Sea (West Sea) via
the Han River.[222] However, both Koreas and the UNC failed to make this happen. The South Korean government ordered the construction of the Ara Canal to finally connect Seoul to the Yellow Sea, which was completed in 2012. Seoul was effectively landlocked from the ocean until 2012. The biggest limitation of the Ara Canal is it is too narrow to handle any vessels except small tourist
boats and recreational boats, so Seoul still cannot receive large commercial ships or passenger ships in its port. In recent years Chinese fishing vessels have taken advantage of the tense situation in the Han River Estuary Neutral Zone and illegally fished in this area due to both North Korean and South Korean navies never patrolling this area due to the fear of naval battles breaking
out. This has led to firefights and sinkings of boats between Chinese fishermen and South Korean Coast Guard.[223][224] On January 30, 2019, North Korean and South Korean military officials signed a landmark agreement that would open the Han River Estuary to civilian vessels for the first time since the Armistice Agreement in 1953. The agreement was scheduled to take place in April 2019
but the failure of the 2019 Hanoi Summit indefinitely postponed these plans.[225][226][227]
EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg is an airport located in France 20 kilometres southeast of Mulhouse and 3.5 kilometres northwest of Basel (Switzerland), to which it is connected by a customs-free road that allows travellers to access the airport through Swiss and not French border control. The airport has been jointly operated by the two countries since a 1946 treaty. Geneva Airport
in Switzerland has a similar French sector.[228][229]
Khmeimim Air Base in Syria is leased to the Russian government for a period of 49 years, with the Russian government having extraterritorial jurisdiction over the air base and its personnel.[230][231]
The Free City of Danzig was an international League of Nations protectorate that contained the Baltic Sea port of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) and nearly 200 surrounding towns and villages that had a predominantly German population. It was created on 15 November 1920[232][233] in accordance with the 1919 Treaty of Versailles that ended World War I, which excluded the area from Weimar
Germany and the new Second Polish Republic.[234] The Free City had a customs union with Poland.
The Tomb of Suleyman Shah, grandfather of the founder of the Ottoman Empire Osman I, has been located in northern Syria since the empire's collapse. The 1921 Treaty of Ankara between Turkey and France (which ruled Syria at the time) states that the tomb "shall remain, with its appurtenances, the property of Turkey, who may appoint guardians for it and may hoist the Turkish flag
there".[235] The tomb was moved in 1973 as the site was to be flooded by the creation of Lake Assad, and in 2015 it was relocated unilaterally by Turkey in response to the Syrian Civil War. The Syrian government denounced the move as incompatible with the 1921 treaty; Turkey plans to move the tomb back to the second site.[236]
During the late Qing dynasty, portions of the Chinese coast were surrendered as Concessions to many Western powers and Japan. Each concession had its own legal regime which privileged the foreign power's citizens over the Chinese majority, and replaced Chinese cultural influences with those of the foreign power.
Central Baghdad has an international zone located in a crook of the Tigris River, housing foreign embassies, military headquarters and key Iraqi government institutions. The official name started as the Green Zone but was later changed to the "International Zone" in June 2004 with the restoration of Iraqi sovereignty.[237][238]
French, British, American and Soviet troops divided Vienna into four zones from 1945 to 1955. A small international zone of the historical city centre was governed in rotation by troops of those countries.
During the Cold War division of Berlin, the Friedrichstraße station was served by West Berlin S-Bahn and U-Bahn trains despite being located entirely in East Berlin. West Berliners could transfer between the S-Bahn, U-Bahn and long-distance trains to the West without passing through East German border control. The station featured an East German government-run Intershop, which sold
duty-free and high-quality items at lower prices compared to the West. The station was also the site of a major border crossing where West Berliners and other travellers with appropriate papers could enter East Germany.
No country has sovereignty over international waters. All states have the freedom of fishing, navigation, overflight, laying cables and pipelines, as well as research. Oceans, seas, and waters outside national jurisdiction are also referred to as the high seas or, in Latin, mare liberum (meaning free sea). The 1958 Convention on the High Seas defined "high seas" to mean "all parts of the
sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State" and where "no State may validly purport to subject any part of them to its sovereignty".[239] The convention was used as a foundation for the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which recognised Exclusive Economic Zones extending 370 kilometres from the baseline, where coastal States
have sovereign rights to the water column and sea floor as well as to the natural resources found there.[240] Ships sailing the high seas are generally under the jurisdiction of the flag state (if there is one);[241] however, when a ship is involved in certain criminal acts, such as piracy,[242] any nation can exercise jurisdiction under the doctrine of universal jurisdiction.
International waters can be contrasted with internal waters, territorial waters and exclusive economic zones.
The Antarctic Treaty System effectively makes the continent of Antarctica an international demilitarised zone de jure.
Under the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, the city of Jerusalem was supposed to become an international corpus separatum. This was never implemented; the city was the scene of fierce fighting in the 1948 war which culminated in its partition between West Jerusalem (Israel) and East Jerusalem (Jordan). In the 1967 war, East Jerusalem was captured and unilaterally annexed
by Israel, in a move that has not been recognized by the international community. The idea of an international zone in Jerusalem, encompassing at least the highly sensitive Old City, continues to feature in many proposals to resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
Dejima was an island port near the Japanese city of Nagasaki that was ceded to Dutch administration between 1641 and 1854. During the Edo period, it was Japan's only point of interaction with the outside world. Border controls limited passage of foreign merchants from Dejima to Nagasaki and of Japanese from Nagasaki to Dejima.[243][244]
The United Kingdom and France established "international zones" or "control zones" at both ends of the Channel Tunnel, which crosses underneath the English Channel. British authorities exercise authority within the control zone on the French side, and French authorities exercise authority within the control zone on the UK side, under a system of juxtaposed controls. Violations in the
control zone are treated as if they occurred within the territory of the adjoining state within that zone, and extradition is not required to remove a violator to the operating state for prosecution. Officers of the adjoining state may carry firearms within the control zone.[245]
The Free Territory of Trieste was an international zone around the Adriatic Sea port of Trieste, under direct responsibility of the United Nations Security Council. The area was established on 10 February 1947 by a protocol of the Treaty of Peace with Italy in order to accommodate an ethnically and culturally mixed population in a neutral environment free from the rule of either Italy or
Yugoslavia, which made competing claims on the territory. The Free Territory was de facto given to its two neighbours in 1954 and this was formalised much later by the bilateral Treaty of Osimo of 1975, ratified in 1977.[246] During the late 1940s and in the years following the division of the Territory, up to 40,000 people[247] (mostly Italians) chose to leave the Yugoslav B zone and
move to the A zone or Italy for various reasons: Some were intimidated into leaving, and some simply preferred not to live in Yugoslavia. In Yugoslavia, the people who left were called optanti ("choosing"), while they call themselves esuli ("exiles"). About 14,000 Italians chose to remain in the Yugoslav zone, currently divided between Slovenia and Croatia.
The Tangier International Zone was a 373 square kilometre protectorate controlled by several countries in the Moroccan city of Tangier and its environs between 1923 and 1956. Much like the Shanghai International Settlement, the government and administration of the zone was in the hands of a number of foreign powers.
The Green Line separating Southern Cyprus and Northern Cyprus is considered an International Zone because the United Nations operate and patrol within the buffer zone. The buffer zone was established in 1974 due to ethnic tensions between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. The green line is a demilitarised zone and thus acts in the same way as the 38th parallel separating the Republic of Korea
and North Korea. The United Nations currently has its headquarters for the UNFICYP at the abandoned Nicosia International Airport, where the majority of peacekeepers are based and where talks between the two governments are held.
Flags of United Nations member states flying outside the United Nations Headquarters complex in New York City.
 
Nanjing Road (then romanised as Nanking Road) in Shanghai, within the Shanghai International Settlement, a concession administered by multiple foreign powers during the late Qing Dynasty.
 
The four sectors of occupation in Vienna between 1945 and 1955.
 
United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, showing the city of Jerusalem as an international zone
 
Map of the Free Territory of Trieste, showing its two administrative zones, one of which was later absorbed by each of its two neighbours (Slovenia and Croatia were both part of Yugoslavia at the time).
Travel documents
See also: Travel document and Passport
Automated travel document inspection at Dubai Airport
Border control policies typically require travellers to present valid travel documents in order to ascertain their identity, nationality or permanent residence status, and eligibility to enter a given jurisdiction. The most common form of travel document is the passport, a booklet-form identity document issued by national authorities or the governments of certain subnational
territories[ab] containing an individual's personal information as well as space for the authorities of other jurisdictions to affix stamps, visas, or other permits authorising the bearer to enter, reside, or travel within their territory. Certain jurisdictions permit individuals to clear border controls using identity cards, which typically contain similar personal information.
Different countries impose varying travel document regulations and requirements as part of their border control policies and these may vary based on the traveller's mode of transport. For instance, whilst America does not subject passengers departing by land or most boats to any border control, it does require that passengers departing by air hold a valid passport (or certain specific
passport-replacing documents). Consequently, even though travellers departing America by air might not be required to have a passport to enter a certain country, they will be required to have a valid passport booklet to board their flight in order to satisfy American immigration authorities at departure.[248] Similarly, although several countries outside the European Economic Area accept
national national identity cards issued by its member states for entry, Sweden and Finland do not permit their citizens to depart for countries outside the EEA using solely their identity cards.[249][250]
International Certificate of Vaccination
Main article: International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis
New cover of Carte Jaune issued by the Philippines since 2021
The International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (ICVP), also known as the Carte Jaune, is an official vaccination report created by the World Health Organization (WHO).[251] As a travel document, it is a kind of medical passport that is recognised internationally and may be required for entry to certain countries where there are increased health risks for travellers (see
section on biosecurity).[251]
Various schemes for health passports or vaccination certificates have been proposed for people who have been vaccinated against COVID-19. The IATA Travel Pass application for smartphone, introduced by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) in early 2021 is a mobile app designed to standardise the health verification process confirming whether aeroplane passengers have been
vaccinated against, or tested negative for, COVID-19 prior to travel. The application is intended to eventually replace the Carte Jaune and to facilitate the verification of vaccination for Yellow Fever and other diseases prescribed by border control policies in various countries. Trials of the application are carried out by a number of airlines including Singapore Airlines, Emirates,
Qatar Airways, Etihad and Air New Zealand.[252][253]
Due to the prevalence of counterfeit certificates in some places, several countries, including Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Nigeria, have been developing digital certificates to be used in conjunction with and to authenticate an ICVP.[254][255] As of July 2019, Nigeria requires its citizens to have its digital "e-Yellow Card" for travel outside the country. The card has a QR code that can be
scanned to verify its validity. This requirement does not affect travellers from other countries with valid ICVPs, but those arriving in Nigeria who haven't been vaccinated for yellow fever may receive the vaccine and the e-Yellow Card upon arrival.[256][257][258]
Diplomatic and Official Passports
Left to right: diplomatic, official, and regular passport from India. Each passport type has a different cover colour.
Left to right: diplomatic, service, and public affairs passport from the People's Republic of China.
Pursuant to the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, and the immunity afforded to officials of a foreign state under customary international law, diplomats and other individuals travelling on government business are entitled to reduced scrutiny at border checkpoints when travelling overseas. Consequently, such individuals are typically
issued special passports indicating their status. These passports come in three distinct varieties:
Diplomatic Passports: Typically issued to accredited diplomats, senior consular staff, heads of state or government, and to senior foreign ministry employees. Individuals holding diplomatic passports are entitled to the greatest degree of immunity from border control inspections.
Official (or Service) Passports: Issued to senior government officials travelling on state business who are not eligible for diplomatic passports. Holders of official passports are typically entitled to similar immunity from border control inspections. In the United States, official and service passports are two distinct categories of passport, with official passports being issued to
senior government officials while service passports are issued to government contractors.[ac]
Public affairs passports: Issued to Chinese nationals holding senior positions in state-owned companies. While public affairs passports do not usually entitle their bearers to exemption from searches at border checkpoints, they are subject to more liberal visa policies in several countries primarily in Africa and Asia (see: Visa requirements for Chinese citizens).
Laissez-passer
"Laissez-passer" redirects here. For other uses, see Laissez-passer (disambiguation).
A laissez-passer (French for "let pass") is a travel document issued by a national government or certain international organisations. A laissez-passer is often for one-way travel to the issuing country for humanitarian reasons only such as Restoring Family Links. Some national governments issue laissez-passers to their own nationals as emergency passports. Others issue them to people who
are stateless, or who are unable to obtain a passport from their own government, or whose government is not recognised by the issuing country. During the COVID-19 pandemic, they were issued by French consulates to people who would otherwise be unable to enter the country due to travel restrictions, but were allowed to enter for a single trip on compassionate grounds.[262]
Historically, laissez-passers were commonly issued during wartime and at other periods, literally acting as a pass to allow travel to specific areas, or out of war zones or countries for various officials, diplomatic agents, other representatives or citizens of third countries. In these contexts, a laissez-passer would frequently include quite specific and limited freedom of movement.
The form and issuing authority would be more or less standardized, depending on the circumstances. For example, during the early 1950s, the Iraqi government granted permission to its 120,000 Jewish citizens to leave (Operation Ezra and Nehemiah), conditional on their renouncing their citizenship and leaving behind all their properties and assets. The travel document that was issued was
the laissez-passer, since an Iraqi passport was no longer possible.[263]
The most common laissez-passer is the United Nations laissez-passer issued by the United Nations under the provisions of Article VII of the 1946 Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations[264] in its offices in New York and Geneva, as well as by the International Labour Organisation (ILO).[265] The UNLP is issued to UN and ILO staff as well as staff members of
international organisations such as the WHO, the IAEA, the World Tourism Organisation, the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organisation Preparatory Commission, the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), the World Trade Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), the World Intellectual Property Organisation
(WIPO) and the World Bank. The document is written in English and French, working languages of United Nations. The UNLP is a valid travel document, which can be used like a national passport (in connection with travel on official missions only). However, UNLP holders often encounter immigration officials who are unfamiliar with the document and require them to show a national passport in
addition.[266] As with national passports, some countries/regions accept it for entry without the need for a visa (e.g., Turkmenistan,[267] Kenya, the United Kingdom, Schengen Area, Lebanon, etc.), while other countries may require a visa before it can be accepted for entry to the country (depending on the nationality of the UNLP holder).
Similarly, the European Union laissez-passer is issued to civil servants and members of the institutions of the European Union. It is proof of privileges and immunities the holders enjoy. The document is valid in all countries of the European Union as well as in over 100 other countries. In 2006, the European Commission issued or renewed 2,200 laissez-passer, and other agencies may issue
the document as well.[268]
The Interpol Travel Document is a document similar to the United Nations and European Union laissez-passer and is issued to Interpol officers for travel to Interpol member countries. They are intended to reduce response times for personnel deployed to assist with transnational criminal investigations, major events or emergency situations by waiving normal visa requirements.[269] The
travel documents consist of an e-Passport Booklet and an e-Identification Card identifying the holder as an Interpol officer, granting them special immigration status when travelling on official Interpol duties to participating member countries.[270]
The front cover of a blue machine-readable United Nations laissez-passer.
 
The front of the card-form Interpol Travel Document
Identity cards
Argentinian National ID card valid for travel to other Mercosur countries in lieu of a passport
Certain jurisdictions permit (or in China's case require) the use of identity cards to clear border controls. For instance, when travelling between India and Nepal or Bhutan, Indian citizens may utilise national voter ID cards, ration cards, or national identity cards. Indian citizens may also obtain identity slips at the Indian consulate in Phuentsholing if they intend to proceed beyond
city limits as Phuentsholing, the financial capital of Bhutan, is de facto within India's visa and customs area. When travelling to India, citizens of Nepal and Bhutan can utilise similar documents. Children may use birth certificates as proof of identity. Similarly, many Mercosur countries reciprocally permit travel using identity cards.
In western Europe, travel using identity cards is relatively common for citizens of the European Economic Area and adjacent territories. This includes travel to and from Turkey for certain citizens of other countries in western Europe. Within the Schengen Area, there are limited border controls in place and national identity cards may be used to clear them. Since August 2021, identity
cards within the European Economic Area have been standardised under EU Regulation 2019/1157.[271] The new standard is intended to replace and harmonise the various identity card models currently in use across the European Union (EU) and the European Economic Area (EEA).[ad]
In North America, American citizens may travel to Canada or certain islands in the Caribbean using the passport card while children holding Canadian or American citizenship may travel between America and Canada using birth certificates under certain circumstances. An Enhanced Driving Licence is an identity card issued by provincial and state authorities in Canada and America that, in
addition to serving as a valid driving licence, enables its bearer to clear land border controls between the two countries. It is not valid for air travel and does not permit its holder to clear border controls at airports. It also serves as a valid driving licence. Certain provinces and states may issue similar enhanced versions of regional identity cards issued to individuals who do
not drive. Similarly, a Border Crossing Card (BCC) is an identity document issued by the American government to nationals of Mexico. As a standalone document, the BCC allows its holder to visit the border areas of the United States when entering by land or sea directly from Mexico for up to 30 days[273][274] and, when presented with a valid Mexican passport, functions as a B1/B2 visa for
entry to any part of the United States by any means of transportation.[275][276] Additionally, Mexico permits the use of identity cards issued by Mexican consulates overseas[277], voter ID cards, and CURP cards by Mexican citizens entering the country, which has the effect of enabling individuals who use the BCC or a US Permanent Resident Card as a standalone travel document when
travelling to re-enter Mexico.
Travel documents for permanent residents
Further information: Permanent residency
The US re-entry permit is a travel document for permanent residents issued on request.
U.S. Green Card issued to all permanent residents.
A booklet-form Japan re-entry permit issued to special permanent residents of Japan
A sticker/stamp form Japanese Re-entry Permit issued to ordinary permanent residents
Some countries issue travel documents to permanent residents (i.e. foreign citizens permitted to reside there indefinitely) or other non-citizens, usually for re-entry but also occasionally valid for international travel.
The American Re-Entry Permit is an example of such a document. Valid for international travel, it is issued to lawful permanent residents temporarily expatriating overseas. Unlike the "Green Card" issued to all permanent residents, this document is not mandatory. The American "Green Card", on its own or in conjunction with a passport, is valid for international travel albeit not to the
same extent as the re-entry permit. Both documents can be utilised to clear American border controls regardless of the bearer's nationality, thus resulting in America not requiring permanent residents to hold a passport from their home country in order to remain lawfully present or to lawfully enter.[ae]
Singapore issues national identity cards to permanent residents in the same manner as it does to citizens, but additionally requires any permanent resident travelling abroad to hold a valid electronic re-entry permit and a passport or other travel document from their home country. Similarly, Hong Kong and Macau issue permanent resident cards to all permanent residents including those
without Chinese citizenship.
While Canada does not issue a mandatory national identity card to its citizens, it issues the Canada permanent resident card, which serves as a valid travel document for Canadian permanent residents to clear border controls in the country. Additionally, Canada requires any Canadian Permanent Residents entering the country by air to use their Permanent Resident Card or a special document
authorising their return.[278] No such requirement is imposed on a permanent resident entering by land or sea. Canadian citizens are prohibited from using a foreign passport to enter the country.[279]
Japan issues a re-entry permit for individuals holding permanent resident status. This document is issued in one of two formats depending on the nationality status of the holder. For ordinary permanent residents holding a passport from their country of citizenship, it is issued as a stamp or sticker affixed to a page on its holder's passport. For members of the Chōsen-seki community and
descendants of Taiwanese immigrants whose ancestors moved to Japan when Korea and Taiwan were Japanese colonies, who are classified as special permanent residents, a booklet-form Japan re-entry Permit is issued for international travel. While special permanent residents are treated by Japanese authorities as similar to Japanese citizens in most regards, including access to consular
assistance, they are unable to participate in elections or exercise other rights reserved specifically for Japanese citizens. Nevertheless, they enjoy greater legal rights than ordinary permanent residents. For example, special permanent residents are not subject to immigration control under Article 5 of the Immigration Control Act 1951. During the coronavirus pandemic of 2020, special
permanent residents were allowed the right of return, while other permanent residents were denied permission to enter Japan.[280][281]
Seafarers' identity documents
Main articles: Seafarers' Identity Documents Convention (Revised), 2003 and Seafarers' Identity Documents Convention, 1958
Comparison between a passport and a seafarers' identity document.
Data page of a seafarers' identity document.
A seafarers' identity document (also known as a seaman's identity document or merchant mariner credential) is a travel document issued to individuals authorised to serve as crew members aboard vessels engaged in international voyages. Like an ordinary passport, it contains its holder's personal information and is generally issued by the same authorities. Additionally, it contains
information as to its bearer's qualifications to serve on a ship's crew. In certain jurisdictions, of seafarers' identity documents are entitled to simplified visa requirements when travelling on duty. For instance, mainland China maintains a simplified visa regime for holders of certain countries' seafarers' identity documents travelling on duty.
Indigenous nations
Indigenous passports
Various Indigenous nations in the Americas, as well as the Aboriginal Provisional Government in Australia, issue passports to their citizens as an assertion of sovereignty symbolically rejecting the legitimacy of settler authorities. Notable examples include the Haudenosaunee passport issued by the Six Nations of the Haudenosaunee confederacy, the Aboriginal passport in Australia, and
various Indigenous passports in Latin America such as the Kichwa passport in Ecuador.[282] Indigenous passports are typically not recognised as valid travel documents for border control purposes. In particular, the Iroquois Nationals lacrosse team has been involved in high-profile disputes over their refusal to travel on Canadian or American passports to international lacrosse
competitions, being prevented from attending the 2010 World Lacrosse Championship in the United Kingdom[283] but being permitted to attend the tournament in 2018 in Israel subject to guarantees from the Canadian and American governments that the players would be permitted to return home.[284][285]
Certificate of Indigenous Status
While Indigenous passports are generally not recognised by border control authorities, the Certificate of Indigenous Status issued by the Canadian government to individuals on the Indian Register is accepted by American and Canadian border control authorities for travel by land or sea.[286][287] In 2018, the Canadian government introduced a Secure Certificate of Indigenous Status that
serves as a machine readable travel document to enable Indigenous individuals to cross the border more efficiently.[288] In order to address the desire of members of Indigenous nations not to be labelled as Canadian citizens, the Secure Certificate of Indigenous Status does not state the individual's nationality[289] The Canadian government issues Certificates of Indigenous Status to
registered Indigenous individuals regardless of whether or not they are Canadian citizens or hold Canadian permanent residence[286] but, although America permits Canadian citizens exercising Jay Treaty freedom of movement rights to enter using the document,[276] Indigenous individuals holding American citizenship are instead required to use tribal identity cards[290] or other
American-issued WHTI-compliant documents.
Enhanced Tribal Identity Cards
Under the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative, Indigenous people holding American citizenship may clear land and sea border controls using machine readable enhanced tribal identity cards, which contain similar features to enhanced driving licences issued by certain states and provinces.[290] Unlike the Ceritafice of Indigenous Status, the document is only issued to American
citizens.[290] The document is treated by Canadian and American border controls as equivalent to an enhanced driving licence[291] and may additionally be accepted by Mexican border control for entry up to 20–30 km from the border subject to prevailing permit requirements.[292][293].
Kikapoo I-872 Native American Card
Mexican citizens enrolled in the Texas Band of Kickapoo Indians or Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma may enter America by land or sea using the Form I-872 American Indian Card, which provides for freedom of movement across the border for the Kickapoo first nation regardless of citizenship.[276][290][af]
American Samoans
While the Indigenous peoples of Hawaii, the American mainland, and most American territories have been granted full American citizenship and the accompanying right to apply for a passport on the same basis as any other American, the native population of American Samoa have not. As specified in 8 U.S.C. § 1408, a person whose only connection to the America is through birth in an outlying
possession (which is defined in 8 U.S.C. § 1101 as American Samoa and Swains Island (which is administered as part of American Samoa)), or through descent from a person so born, acquires American nationality but not citizenship. This was formerly the case in only four other current or former American territories.[294] The origin of this distinction in status is the United States Supreme
Court’s jurisprudence in the Insular Cases, in which the court held that the Indigenous inhabitants of newly acquired territories did not automatically acquire full American citizenship. Consequently, American Samoans are issued passports containing endorsement code 9 which states: "THE BEARER IS A UNITED STATES NATIONAL AND NOT A UNITED STATES CITIZEN." on the annotations page.[295]
Non-citizen American nationals may reside and work in the United States without restrictions, but must apply for citizenship under the same rules as resident aliens. Like resident aliens, they are not presently allowed by any American state to vote in federal or state elections, although, as with resident aliens, there is no constitutional prohibition against their doing so.
Special travel documents
While the majority of international travellers clear border controls using passports or national identity cards, a wide variety of travel documents are utilised by individuals in irregular situations, ranging from de jure or de facto stateless individuals to individuals affected by international border disputes, the aftermath of the fall of states such as Yugoslavia or the USSR, or other
legal complexities. Such travel documents are typically subject to greater scrutiny by border control authorities, with countries such as Singapore imposing strict controls on stateless individuals and refugees regardless of the issuing country of their travel documents.
Certificate of identity
Main articles: Certificate of Identity, Refugee travel document, and 1954 Convention travel document
A 1954 Convention travel document issued in Germany in 2008
Canadian Refugee Travel Document
A certificate of identity is a travel document issued by a country to non-citizens (also called aliens) residing within their borders who are stateless persons or otherwise unable to obtain a passport from their state of nationality (generally refugees). Some states also issue certificates of identity to their own citizens as a form of emergency passport or otherwise in lieu of a
passport. The visa requirements of certificates of identity may be different from those of regular passports. There are three types of certificate of identity: 1954 Convention travel documents, 1951 Convention travel documents, and non-convention travel documents.
A 1954 Convention travel document is a certificate of identity issued to a (typically, but not always, stateless) person in circumstances of any difficulties in gaining a travel document from their country of origin.[296]
Similarly, a 1951 Convention travel document (or refugee travel document) is a certificate of identity issued to a refugee by the state in which they normally reside in allowing them to travel outside that state and to return there. Refugees are unlikely to be able to obtain passports from their state of nationality (from which they have sought asylum) and therefore need travel documents
so that they might engage in international travel. The 145 states which are parties to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees are obliged to issue travel documents to refugees lawfully resident in their territory.[297] Refugee travel documents are passport-like booklets. Their cover bears the words "Travel Document" in English and French (and often in the language of the
issuing state), as well as the date of the convention: 28 July 1951. The documents were originally grey, though some countries now issue them in other colours, with two diagonal lines in the upper left corner of the front cover.
Non-Convention (or non-National) travel documents are certificates of identity issued by a country to non-citizen (also called alien) residents who do not have access to passport facilities from their own countries, are not recognised as either Convention refugees, and are not officially stateless under the 1954 Convention relating to the status of stateless persons (or the country they
live in has not signed that convention). These are issued in many jurisdictions across the globe in which significant numbers of residents are stateless. For instance, Singapore permanent residents who are stateless are issued booklet-form Certificates of Identity in lieu of a passport while Indonesia issues the Paspor Orang Asing to its stateless permanent residents. The issue Hong Kong
Document of Identity for Visa Purposes and Macau Travel Permit, serve a similar function in China's special administrative regions and are issued to stateless permanent residents and to Chinese citizens temporarily residing in the region who hold neither permanent residence of Hong Kong or Macau nor residence status in the mainland and are thereby ineligible for any category of Chinese
passport.
The Indian government issues non-convention certificates of identity to members of the large Tibetan exile community and to other stateless residents of India. Certificates of identity are routinely issued upon request of the Dalai Lama's Tibetan government in exile based in Dharamsala. This document is accepted by most countries border control policies in lieu of a passport, although it
is not a machine readable document. Tibetans travelling to areas administered by the Republic of China or People's Republic of China may be required to use a ROC passport without right of abode or a Chinese Travel Document instead. When issued to a Tibetan residing in India, a certificate of identity is invariably endorsed as being valid for return to India and therefore exempts the
holder from requiring a visa to clear Indian border controls upon re-entry.
Similarly, non-citizens in Latvia and in Estonia are individuals, primarily of Russian or Ukrainian ethnicity, who are not citizens of Latvia or Estonia but whose families have resided in the area since the Soviet era, and thus have the right to a special non-citizen passport issued by the government as well as some other specific rights. Approximately two thirds of them are ethnic
Russians, followed by ethnic Belarussians, ethnic Ukrainians, ethnic Poles and ethnic Lithuanians.[298][299] This form of legal discrimination has been labelled as xenophobic by the UN Special Rapporteur.[300] Per Russian visa policy, holders of the Estonian alien's passport or the Latvian non-citizen passport are entitled to visa free entry to Russia, in contrast to Estonian and Latvian
citizens who must obtain an electronic visa.
Between 2000[301] and 2008, the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK)[302] issued the UNMIK Travel Document, a non-convention travel document, to residents of Kosovo[ag] who were not able to obtain a passport from Yugoslavia, for the purpose of foreign travel.[303] After the government of Kosovo started to issue their own passports, the UNMIK ceased issuing
them. Existing UNMIC travel documents retained their validity until expiry (the last ones expired in 2010). In light of the disputed nationality status of residents of Kosovo, the UNMIK travel document did not contain information on nationality. The document was labelled UNMIK travel document/titre de voyage on the cover, contained 32 pages, and was valid for 2 years. It contained a
machine readable strip. As the issuing authority was the UNMIK, the document had the official[304] three-letter code "UNK" where normally the country code is placed. It was the only other travel document issued by the United Nations besides the United Nations Laissez-Passer, which is mainly issued to employees of the UN and its specialised agencies. As the status of Kosovo was and
remains controversial, the document was not widely accepted[305] and, although America did accept the UNMIK Travel Document, it did not place visa stickers in the document itself, but on a detached sheet.[306]
Chinese Travel Document
Chinese Travel Document
The Chinese Government requires certain people to enter the mainland using a Chinese Travel Document (Chinese: 中国旅行证; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó Lǚ​xíng Zhèng). Some cases include:
When it is "inconvenient", "unnecessary", or not permitted to issue a People's Republic of China passport to Chinese nationals.[307]
Chinese nationals residing in Mainland China who lost their passport while travelling abroad may apply for this document as an emergency passport for returning to China.
Chinese nationals who are permanent residents of Hong Kong and Macau intending to enter Mainland China directly from other countries without a Home Return Permit.
Residents of the areas administered by the Republic of China[l] intending to enter Mainland China or Hong Kong directly from other countries, who are Chinese nationals according to Chinese law. Travelling to Hong Kong, however, requires a separate application for a visa-like entry permit.
Chinese nationals born abroad who acquired Chinese nationality at birth in accordance with the Nationality Law of the People's Republic of China through jus sanguinis. The Chinese Travel Document is issued as a Chinese identification and travel document.
Chinese nationals born in China who do not have a Hukou in China and who have exited China using an exit permit. This could include a person who holds a non-Chinese passport.
The Chinese Travel Document may also be issued to citizens of the Republic of China for travel to countries that do not accept the Republic of China passport or in order to visit United nation's offices.
Israeli Travel Document in lieu of a National Passport
A Travel Document in Lieu of National Passport (Hebrew: תעודת מעבר במקום דרכון לאומי‎ Teudat Ma'avar bimkom Darkon Leumi)[308] may be issued to an Israeli citizen in a number of circumstances:[309]
A new immigrant to Israel acquires Israeli nationality immediately when issued with an certificate of immigration (תעודת עולה teudat oleh) upon arrival in the country, but this nationality may be waived with retroactive effect to the moment the certificate of immigration was issued if such an application is filed with the ministry of the interior within 90 days following the
issuance of the certificate of immigration. During these 90 days, a new immigrant cannot apply for an Israeli passport or travel document unless they file a waiver of the right to waive the automatic acquisition of Israeli nationality. Prior to 2017, a new immigrant could not be issued with an Israeli passport until they had resided in Israel for a period of at least 270 days following
the issuance of their certificate of immigration. In 2017, this restriction was lifted when the passport act was modified by the Knesset.[310][311]
Israeli citizens with criminal record.
Israeli citizens who have lost or destroyed over three passports.
Israeli citizens who have lost their passport during an overseas trip.
Israeli citizens who are returning to Israel by decision of the Israeli government.
They are normally valid for two years, and not for more than five years. The issuance of travel documents instead of passports became prevalent in the 1990s as the Israeli government reacted to a wave of Russian organised crime gangs who immigrated to Israel and began using Israeli passports for their activities.[312] Individuals holding such travel documents may face greater scrutiny by
border control officers overseas as well as ineligibility for visa free entry to certain jurisdictions.
Israeli travel document front cover
 
The first page within the Israeli travel document
Passports without right of abode
Main articles: National without household registration and British nationality law
Map illustrating extra border controls placed on ROC nationals without household registration (NWOHRs). Passports issued to NWOHRs do not contain national identity card numbers and many foreign jurisdictions (as illustrated in the map) thus distinguish between ROC passports based on the presence or absence of a national ID number.
Sample ROC passport issued to NWOHRs. Note the absence of a national ID number.
Unlike most countries, the United Kingdom and the Republic of China issue various categories of passports to individuals without the right of abode in their territory. In the United Kingdom's case, these passports are typically issued to individuals connected with a former British colony while, in the ROC's case, these passports are the result of the legal distinction between ROC
nationals with and without residence in the area it administers. [l] In both cases, holders of such passports are able to obtain residence on an equal footing with foreigners by applying for indefinite leave to remain (UK) or a resident certificate (ROC).
A Republic of China citizen who does not have household registration (Chinese: 戶籍; pinyin: hùjí) in the area administered by the ROC [l] is classified as a National Without Household Registration (NWOHR; Chinese: 無戶籍國民) and is subject to immigration controls when clearing ROC border controls, does not have automatic residence rights, and cannot vote in Taiwanese
elections. However, they are exempt from conscription. Most individuals with this status are children born overseas to ROC citizens who do hold household registration. Additionally, because the ROC observes the principle of jus sanguinis, members of the overseas Chinese community are also regarded as citizens.[313] During the Cold War, both the ROC and PRC governments actively sought the
support of overseas Chinese communities in their attempts to secure the position as the legitimate sole government of China. The ROC also encouraged overseas Chinese businessmen to settle in Taiwan to facilitate economic development and regulations concerning evidence of ROC nationality by descent were particularly lax during the period, allowing many overseas Chinese the right to settle
in Taiwan.[314] About 60,000 NWOHRs currently hold Taiwanese passports with this status.[315]
The United Kingdom issues several distinct categories of passports that do not grant bearers right of abode. British National (Overseas) passports are issued to individuals connected to Hong Kong prior to its return to China, British Overseas Citizen passports are primarily issued to individuals who did not acquire the citizenship of the colony they were connected to when it obtained
independence (or their stateless descendants), British Protected Person passports are issued to otherwise stateless people connected to a former British protectorate, and British subject passports are issued to otherwise stateless individuals connected to British India or to certain categories of Irish citizens (though, in the latter case, they do convey right of abode). British Overseas
Citizen passports are also issued to certain categories of Malaysian nationals of Chinese origin and individuals connected to Cyprus as a result of the legislation granting independence to those former British colonies.
Border control policies in many jurisdictions distinguish between holders of passports with and without right of abode, including NWOHRs and holders of the various British passports the do not confer right of abode upon the bearer. Certain jurisdictions may additionally distinguish between holders of such British passports with and without indefinite leave to remain in the United
Kingdom. NWOHRs do not, for instance, have access to the Visa Waiver Program, or to visa free access to the Schengen Area or Japan. Other countries, such as India which allows all Chinese nationals to apply for eVisas, don't make such a distinction. Notably, while Singapore does permit visa free entry to all categories of British passport holders, it reduces length of stay for British
nationals without right of abode in the United Kingdom, but does not distinguish between ROC passport holders with and without household registration.
Until 31 January 2021, holders of British National (Overseas) passports were able to use their UK passports for immigration clearance in Hong Kong[316] and to seek consular protection from overseas Chinese diplomatic missions. This was a unique arrangement as it involved a passport issued by one state confereing right of abode (or, more precisely right to land) in and consular protection
from another state. Since that date, the Chinese and Hong Kong governments have prohibited the use of BN(O) passports as travel documents or proof of identity and it; much like British Overseas Citizen, British Protected Person, or ROC NWOHR passports; is not associated with right of abode in any territory. BN(O)s who do not possess Chinese (or any other) nationality are required to use
a Document of Identity for Visa Purposes for travel.[316] This restriction disproportionally affects ease of travel for permanent residents of Indian, Pakistani, and Nepali ethnicity,[317] who were not granted Chinese nationality in 1997. As an additional consequence, Hongkongers seeking early pre-retirement withdrawals from the Mandatory Provident Fund pension scheme may not use BN(O)
passports for identity verification.[318]
Additionally, individuals connected to a British overseas territory are accorded British Overseas Territories citizenship, which in and of itself confers right of abode in no country or territory. Each territory maintains its own criteria for determining whom it grants right of abode. Consequently, individuals holding BOTC passports are not necessarily entitled to enter or reside in the
territory that issued their passport. Most countries distinguish between BOTC and other classes of British nationality for border control purposes. For instance, only Bermudian passport holders with an endorsement stating that they possess right of abode or belonger status in Bermuda are entitled to enter America without an electronic travel authorisation.[319]
Serbian Coordination Directorate Passports in Kosovo
Main articles: Serbian Coordination Directorate and Serbian passport § Kosovo Residents
Under Serbian law, people born or otherwise legally settled in Kosovo[ag] are considered Serbian nationals and as such they are entitled to a Serbian passport.[320] However, these passports are not issued by the Serbian Ministry of the Interior. Instead they are issued by the Serbian Coordination Directorate.[321] These particular passports do not allow the holder to enter the Schengen
Area without a visa.[322]
Visas
Tourist visas issued by India (left) and Singapore (right) in a stateless person's travel document.
Brazilian multiple entry visa in an American passport
Tourist entry visa for mainland China
Sample of printed out eNTRI slip for Indian and mainland Chinese citizens to clear Malaysian border controls without a visa.
Facilitated Rail Transit Document issued in Saint Petersburg for travel to Kaliningrad
Thai visa issued on arrival in stamp form
A visa is a travel document issued to foreign nationals enabling them to clear border controls. They traditionally take the form of an adhesive sticker or, occasionally, a stamp affixed to a page in an individual’s passport or equivalent document. Visas policies different purposes depending on the priorities of each jurisdiction, ranging from ensuring that visitors do not pose a
national security risk or have sufficient financial resources to simply functioning as a tax on tourists, as is the case with countries like Mauritius and other leisure destinations which issue visas on arrival, electronic visas, or electronic travel authorisations to most or all visitors. Visas may include limits on the duration of the foreigner's stay, areas within the state they may
enter, the dates they may enter, the number of permitted visits, or an individual's right to work in the state in question.
Many countries in Asia have liberalised their visa controls in recent years to encourage transnational business and tourism. For example, India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka have introduced electronic visas to make border control less arduous for business travellers and tourists. Malaysia has introduced similar eVisa facilities, and has also introduced the eNTRI programme to expedite clearance
for Indian citizens and Chinese citizens from the mainland. Thailand regularly issues visas on arrival to many non-exempt visitors at major ports of entry in order to encourage tourism. Indonesia, in recent years, has progressively liberalised its visa regime, no longer requiring visas or on-arrival visas from most nationals, while Singapore has signed visa waiver agreements with many
countries in recent years and has introduced electronic visa facilities for Indians, Eastern Europeans, and mainland Chinese. This trend towards visa liberalisation in Asia is part of the regional trend toward social and economic globalisation that has been linked to heightened economic growth.[323]
Certain countries, predominantly but not exclusively in western Europe and the Americas, issue working holiday visas for younger visitors to supplement their travel funds by working minor jobs. These are especially common in members of the European Union, and elsewhere in Europe.
Saudi Arabia issues a special category visa for people on religious pilgrimage. Similar policies are in force in other countries with significant religious sites.
Certain jurisdictions impose special visa requirements on journalists in order to curtail the freedom of foreign reporters and news organisations to report on controversial topics. Countries that impose such visas include Cuba, China, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, America and Zimbabwe.
As a consequence of awkward border situations created by the fall of the Soviet Union, certain former members of the USSR and their neighbours maintain special visa exemption policies for travellers transiting across international boundaries between two points in a single country. For instance, Russia permits vehicles to transit across the Saatse Boot between the Estonian villages of
Lutepää and Sesniki without any visa or border checkpoint provided that they do not stop. Similar provisions are made for the issuance of Facilitated Rail Transit Documents by Schengen Area members for travel between Kaliningrad Oblast and the Russian mainland, enabling Russian citizens to travel to and from the exclave without a passport or visa.
Many countries let individuals clear border controls using foreign visas.[ah] Notably, the Philippines permits nationals of India and China can use any of several foreign visas to clear border controls.[ai] In order to encourage tourism by transit passengers, South Korea permits passengers in transit who would otherwise require a South Korean visa to enter for up to thirty days utilising
an Australian, Canadian, American, or Schengen visa. Uniquely, the British territory of Bermuda has ceased to issue its own visas and instead requires that travellers either clear immigration visa-free in one of the three countries (Canada, America, and United Kingdom) to/from which it has direct flights, or hold a visa for one of them.
Beginning in the 2000s, many countries introduced e-visas and electronic travel authorisations as an alternative to traditional visas. An electronic travel authorisation is a kind of pre-arrival registration, which may or may not officially classified as a visa depending on the issuing jurisdiction, required for foreign travellers who are exempted from obtaining a full visa. In contrast
to the procedures that typically apply in regard to proper visas, per which the traveller normally has no recourse if rejected, if an ETA is rejected the traveller can choose to apply for a visa instead. In contrast, an e-visa is simply a visa that travellers can apply for and receive online without visiting the issuing state's consular mission or visa agency. The following jurisdictions
require certain categories of international travellers to hold an electronic travel authorisation or e-visa in order to clear border controls upon arrival:
Australia: Australia administers two distinct categories of electronic visitor authorisations. The Electronic Travel Authority scheme is available to citizens of a variety of North America and Asian countries while the eVisitor scheme provides a similar facility for nationals of the European Union and the European Economic Area.
Electronic Travel Authority: Development of the Electronic Travel Authority system commenced in January 1996. It was first implemented in Singapore on a trial basis on 11 September 1996, for holders of Singapore and US passports travelling on Qantas and Singapore Airlines. Implementation of online applications began in June 2001.[329][330] The current ETA came into effect on 23 March
2013 replacing older ETAs (subclass 976, 977 and 956) while offering a single authorisation for both tourist and business purposes.[331] The ETA allows the holder to visit Australia for unlimited times, up to 3 months per visit, in a 12-month period for tourism or business purposes. There is no visa application charge but a service charge of AU$20 applies for applications lodged online.
At the time of travel to, and entry into, Australia, all holders of an ETA must be free from tuberculosis and must not have any criminal convictions for which the sentence or sentences (whether served or not) total 12 months or more.[332] The ETA is currently available to passport holders of a handful of jurisdictions in Asia and North America.[aj]
eVistor programme: The eVisitor scheme was established to create a reciprocal short stay travel arrangement for nationals of Australia and the European Union, while still maintaining Australia's universal visa system. In essence, while nationals of the European Union and European Economic Area are still theoretically issued visas, the burden posed by the system is so minimal as to
satisfy the EU's requirement for visa reciprocity on the part of states whose nationals are accorded visa free access to the Schengen Area.[334][335] The eVisitor is available to citizens of all 27 European Union member states and 9 other countries. The eVisitor is issued free of charge and allows the holder to visit Australia for unlimited times, up to 3 months per visit, in a 12-month
period for tourism or business purposes. At the time of travel to, and entry into, Australia, all holders of an eVisitor must be free from tuberculosis and must not have any criminal convictions for which the sentence or sentences (whether served or not) total 12 months or more.[334] Holders of most jurisdictions[ak] in Western Europe are eligible to enter Australia under the eVisitor
programme.
East African Community: From February 2014, Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda issue an East African Tourist Visa.[337] The visa costs 100 USD and has no restrictions on nationality. It is a non-extendable multiple-entry 90-day visa that has to be first used to enter the country that issued it.[338][
Hong Kong: Indian nationals and Chinese nationals from areas administered by the Republic of China[l] do not require a visa to enter Hong Kong, but must apply for a pre-arrival registration (PAR) prior to arrival. If not successful, Indian travellers may apply for a visa instead. Taiwanese people are eligible only if they were born in Taiwan or entered Hong Kong as an ROC nationals
before, otherwise they should instead apply for an entry permit (a de facto visa) to enter Hong Kong using their Republic of China passport. They may alternatively enter Hong Kong using a Mainland Travel Permit for Taiwan Residents issued by Mainland Chinese authorities without any additional permit.
India: India permits nationals of most jurisdictions[al] to clear border controls using an e-visa. Travellers holding an e-Visa must arrive via 26 designated airports[am] or 3 designated seaports.[an] As of September 2021, India has suspended the issuance of e-visas to British and Canadian citizens in retaliation for what the Indian government deems discriminatory application of COVID-19
restrictions targeted at Indian nationals.[340]
Kenya: From 1 January 2021, Kenya solely issues e-visas and physical visas are no longer available.[341]
New Zealand: New Zealand has required that visa waiver travellers (other than citizens of Australia, members of a visiting force, or individuals associated with a scientific programme or expedition in Antarctica sponsored by a party to the Antarctic Treaty) obtain an Electronic Travel Authority (NZeTA) since 1 October 2019.[342]
North America: East of the Pacific, both America and Canada have introduced electronic travel authorisations. Travellers from visa-free countries entering Canada by air, except American nationals (including those with and without full citizenship), must obtain an Electronic Travel Authorisation prior to arrival but not if arriving by land or sea. Travellers under the Visa Waiver
Programme are required to obtain permission through the Electronic System for Travel Authorisation if arriving in America by air or cruise but not if entering by land or by ferry, using a passport issued by the Government of Bermuda to a British Overseas Territories Citizen, or if entering as a Canadian citizen. Travellers from Brazil normally require a visa to enter Canada, but are
eligible to apply for an ETA if they have held a Canadian visa within the 10 years prior to applying, or if they currently hold a valid non-immigrant American visa. Such travellers still may not enter Canada by land or sea without a valid Canadian visa.
Pakistan: Visitors from several jurisdictions may enter Pakistan for tourism without obtaining a visa in advance provided they hold an Electronic Travel Authorisation.[ao]
Sri Lanka: Travellers to Sri Lanka must obtain an Electronic Travel Authorisation prior to getting a visa on arrival at the entry port, except for a few countries where the ETA is exempted, and for a few countries where a visa must be got in advance. Citizens of India, Pakistan, and other countries in the northwestern part of Asia receive discounted ETAs.[344]
Qatar: From 27 September 2017, citizens of all nationalities who hold valid residence permits or visas from either Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Schengen countries, the United Kingdom, the United States of America or the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council can obtain an Electronic Travel Authorisation for up to 30 days. The visa may be extended online for 30 additional
days.[345] Qatar introduced an e-Visa system on 23 June 2017. All countries except  Egypt,  Israel,  Kosovo and  Palestine that do not qualify for visa on arrival or visa free entry may apply for a tourist visa online through the eVisa system.[346] Visas are issued within four working days if all documents are submitted and are valid for a stay period up to 30 days in Qatar.[347]
United Kingdom: Citizens of Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and the UAE can obtain an Electronic Visa Waiver, or EVW, online to enter the United Kingdom.[ap][348]
Specific requirements
American and Canadian border officers at Vancouver airport
The degree of strictness of border controls varies across countries and borders. In some countries, controls may be targeted at the traveller's religion, ethnicity, nationality, or other countries that have been visited. Others may need to be certain the traveller has paid the appropriate fees for their visas and has future travel planned out of the country. Yet others may concentrate on
the contents of the traveller's baggage, and imported goods to ensure nothing is being carried that might bring a biosecurity risk into the country.
Biometrics
See also: Countries applying biometrics
A fingerprint scanner at Dulles International Airport collects biometric data on visitors, which can be used for confirming identities.
Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest travellers who refuse to comply. In some countries, such as America, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.[349]
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan,[350][351] Argentina,[352] Brunei, Cambodia,[353] China,[354] Ethiopia,[355] Ghana, Guinea,[356] India, Japan,[357][358] Kenya (both fingerprints and a photo are taken),[359] Malaysia upon entry and departure,[360] Paraguay, Saudi Arabia,[361] Singapore, South Korea,[362] Taiwan, Thailand,[363] Uganda[364] and the United States.
Many countries also require a photo be taken of people entering the country. America, which does not fully implement exit control formalities at its land frontiers (although long mandated by domestic legislation),[365][366][367] intends to implement facial recognition for passengers departing from international airports to identify people who overstay their visa.[368]
Together with fingerprint and face recognition, iris scanning is one of three biometric identification technologies internationally standardised since 2006 by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) for use in e-passports[369] and the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa.[370][371] The United States Department of Homeland
Security has announced plans to greatly increase the biometric data it collects at US borders.[372] In 2018, Singapore began trials of iris scanning at three land and maritime immigration checkpoints.[373][374]
Immigration stamps
Main article: Passport stamp
An immigration stamp is an inked impression in a passport or other travel document typically made by rubber stamp upon entering or exiting a territory. Depending on the jurisdiction, a stamp can serve different purposes. For example, in the United Kingdom, an immigration stamp in a passport includes the formal leave to enter granted to a person subject to entry control. In other
countries, a stamp activates or acknowledges the continuing leave conferred in the passport bearer's entry clearance. Under the Schengen system, a foreign passport is stamped with a date stamp which does not indicate any duration of stay. This means that the person is deemed to have permission to remain either for three months or for the period shown on his visa if specified otherwise.
Member states of the European Union are not permitted to place a stamp in the passport of a person who is not subject to immigration control. Stamping is prohibited because it is an imposition of a control to which the person is not subject.
Passport stamps may occasionally take the form of sticker stamps, such as entry stamps from Japan. Depending on nationality, a visitor may not receive a stamp at all (unless specifically requested), such as an EU or EFTA citizen travelling to an EU or EFTA country, Albania,[375] or North Macedonia.[376] Most countries issue exit stamps in addition to entry stamps. A few countries issue
only entry stamps, including Canada, El Salvador, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, Singapore, United Kingdom and the America. Australia, Hong Kong, Israel, Macau and South Korea do not stamp passports upon entry nor exit. These countries or regions issue landing slips instead, with the exception of Australia who do not issue any form of physical evidence of entry. Visas may also take the
form of passport stamps.
Immigration authorities usually have different styles of stamps for entries and exits, to make it easier to identify the movements of people. Ink colour might be used to designate mode of transportation (air, land or sea), such as in Hong Kong prior to 1997; while border styles did the same thing in Macau. Other variations include changing the size of the stamp to indicate length of
stay, as in Singapore.
In many cases passengers on cruise ships do not receive passport stamps because the entire vessel has been cleared into port. It is often possible to get a souvenir stamp, although this requires finding the immigration office by the dock. In many cases officials are used to such requests and will cooperate.[377][378] Also, as noted below, some of the smallest European countries will give
a stamp on request, either at their border or tourist office charging, at most, a nominal fee.
In some countries, there is no formal control by immigration officials of travel documents upon exit. Consequently, exit stamps are not placed in passports. Exit may be recorded by immigration authorities via information provided to them by carriers when the passenger departs from the country.
Entry and exit stamps issued at Beijing Capital International Airport in a Republic of Korea passport
 
Entry stamp issued at Chengdu Shuangliu International Airport in a Chinese passport
 
Old entry and exit stamps issued at Dongguan in a Chinese passport
(Noted that there were no English on stamps)
 
Entry and exit stamps issued at Fuzhou Changle International Airport in a Thai passport
 
American stamp from John F. Kennedy International Airport in a U.S. Passport.
 
An "entry denied" stamp from the Israeli Taba Border Crossing. (Some jurisdictions – such as Germany and Israel – have historically stamped "Entry Denied" on passports.)
 
Entry stamp issued at Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport in an Indian passport
 
Entry stamp issued at Indira Gandhi International Airport to a citizen of Germany
 
Exit stamp in an Indian passport issued at Indira Gandhi International Airport
 
An Indian e-Visa issued at Indira Gandhi International Airport in an Romanian passport
 
Landing slip replacing existent passport stamps, (being unable to present the landing slip on departure does not affect a traveller's ability to clear immigration)
 
Entry stamp issued at juxtaposed controls at Hong Kong West Kowloon railway station
 
Exit stamp issued at juxtaposed controls at Hong Kong West Kowloon railway station in a Chinese passport
 
Entry and exit stamps issued at Shanghai Pudong International Airport in an Italian passport
 
Entry and exit stamps issued at Hong Kong International Airport and the Hong Kong–Macau Ferry Terminal in an Italian passport
 
Entry stamp issued at Hong Kong China Ferry Terminal in a Thai passport
Exit controls
Indian entry stamp at New Delhi Indira Gandhi International Airport.
Indian exit stamp at Indira Gandhi International Airport.
Chinese entry and exit stamps at Shanghai Pudong International Airport.
India and China, like most countries, implement border controls at both entry and exit, and consequently stamp passports upon exit
Entry stamp at Lewiston–Queenston Bridge, Ontario. Canada only conducts border control and stamps passports upon entry.
Whilst most countries implement border controls both at entry and at exit, some jurisdictions do not. For instance, the US and Canada do not implement exit controls at land borders and collect exit data on foreign nationals through airlines and through information sharing with neighbouring countries' entry border controls. These countries consequently don't issue exit stamps even to
travellers who require stamps on entry. Similarly, Australia, Singapore and South Korea have eliminated exit stamps even though they continue to implement brief border control checks upon exit for most foreign nationals.
No exit control
United States United States of America[379]
Canada Canada
Mexico Mexico (by air)
The Bahamas Bahamas
Republic of Ireland Ireland
United Kingdom United Kingdom (Border Force officers do not carry out systematic checks of travel documents on passengers travelling to a destination outside the Common Travel Area by air, rail or sea (though from time to time spot checks are carried out – in this case passports are not stamped); instead, airline/rail/ferry companies obtain passengers' travel document information at
check-in or on departure and transmit the information electronically to the UK Border Force)[380]
Formal exit control without passport stamping
Albania Albania (Entry & Exit stamp may issued upon request)
Australia Australia (Exit stamp issued upon explicit request)[381]
China China (Exit stamp issued upon request when using e-Gate)
Costa Rica Costa Rica (only at Costa Rican airports; different entry and exit stamps are made at the border crossing with Panama)
El Salvador El Salvador
Fiji Fiji
Hong Kong Hong Kong (no entry or exit stamps are issued, instead landing slips are issued upon arrival only)[382]
Iran Iran[383]
Israel Israel (no entry or exit stamps are issued at Ben Gurion Airport, instead landing slips are issued upon arrival and departure)
Japan Japan (Exit stamp issued upon request & when not using e-Gate since July 2019)[384]
Macau Macau (no entry or exit stamps are issued, instead landing slips are issued upon arrival only)
New Zealand New Zealand
South Korea South Korea (since 1 November 2016)
Panama Panama (only at Panamanian airports; different entry and exit stamps are made at the border crossing with Costa Rica)
Taiwan Republic of China (exit stamp issued upon request & when not using e-Gate)
Singapore Singapore (no exit stamps since 22 April 2019)[385]
Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Kitts and Nevis
Europe Schengen Area countries (when the Entry Exit System becomes operational in 2022, it is anticipated that the passports of third-country nationals will not be stamped when they enter and leave the Schengen Area)[citation needed]
Exit permits
Some countries in Europe maintain controversial exit visa systems in addition to regular border controls. For instance, Uzbekistan requires its own citizens to obtain exit visas prior to leaving for countries other than fellow CIS nations in eastern Europe. Several countries in the Arabian peninsula require exit visas for foreign workers under the Kafala System meaning "sponsorship
system"). Russia occasionally requires foreigners who overstay to obtain exit visas since one cannot exit Russia without a valid visa. Czechia has a similar policy.[386] Similarly, a foreign citizen granted a temporary residence permit in Russia needs an exit visa to take a trip abroad (valid for both exit and return). Not all foreign citizens are subject to that requirement. Citizens of
Germany, for example, do not require this exit visa.
During the Cold War, countries in the Eastern Bloc maintained strict controls on citizens’ ability to travel abroad. Citizens of the Soviet Union, East Germany, and other communist states were typically required to obtain permission prior to engaging in international travel. Unlike most of these states, citizens of Yugoslavia enjoyed a significant freedom of international movement.[aq]
Certain Asian countries have policies that similarly require certain categories of citizens to seek official authorisation prior to travelling or emigrating. This is usually either as a way to enforce national service obligations or to protect migrant workers from travelling to places where they may be abused by employers. Singapore, for instance, operates an Exit Permit scheme in order
to enforce the national service obligations of its male citizens and permanent residents.[389] These restrictions vary according to age and status.[390] South Korea and Taiwan[391] have similar policies. India, on the other hand, requires citizens who have not met certain educational requirements (and thus may be targeted by human traffickers or be coerced into modern slavery) to apply
for approval prior to leaving the country and endorses their passports with "Emigration Check Required". Nepal similarly requires citizens emigrating to America on an H-1B visa to present an exit permit issued by the Ministry of Labour. This document is called a work permit and needs to be presented to immigration to leave the country.[392] In a bid to increase protection for the large
amount of Indian, Bangladeshi, Chinese, and Nepali citizens smuggled through Indian airports to the Middle East as underpaid labourers, many Indian airline companies require travellers to obtain an 'OK to Board' confirmation sent directly from visa authorities in certain GCC countries directly to the airline and will bar anyone who has not obtained this endorsement from clearing exit
immigration.
Eritrea requires the vast majority of its citizens to apply for special authorisation if they wish to leave, or even travel within, the country.[393][394][395]
Nationality and travel history
Many nations implement border controls restricting the entry of people of certain nationalities or who have visited certain countries. For instance Georgia refuses entry to holders of passports issued by the Republic of China.[396] Similarly, since April 2017, nationals of Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sudan, Syria, Yemen, and Iran have been banned from entering the parts of eastern Libya under
the control of the Tobruk government.[396][397][398] The majority of Arab countries, as well as Iran and Malaysia, ban Israeli citizens,[396] however exceptional entry to Malaysia is possible with approval from the Ministry of Home Affairs.[399] Certain countries may also restrict entry to those with Israeli stamps or visas in their passports. As a result of tension over the Artsakh
dispute, Azerbaijan currently forbids entry to Armenian citizens as well as to individuals with proof of travel to Artsakh.
Between September 2017 and January 2021, America did not issue new visas to nationals of Iran, North Korea, Libya, Somalia, Syria, or Yemen pursuant to restrictions imposed by the Trump administration,[400] which were subsequently repealed by the Biden administration on 20 January 2021.[401] While in force, the restrictions were conditional and could be lifted if the countries affected
meet the required security standards specified by the Trump administration, and dual citizens of these countries could still enter if they presented a passport from a non-designated country.
Prescreening
A significant number of countries maintain prescreening facilities for passengers departing from other jurisdictions to clear border controls prior to arrival and thereby skip checkpoints upon arrival. Aside from simplifying arrival formalities, this enables border control authorities to deny entry to potentially inadmissible travellers prior to their embarking and to reduce congestion
at border checkpoints located at ports of arrival.
Hong Kong and Mainland China: There are two border crossings between Hong Kong and the Chinese mainland that at which border controls imposed by the two jurisdictions are colocated:
West Kowloon Railway Station (simplified Chinese: 香港西九龙站; traditional Chinese: 香港西九龍站): A component of the Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link (Chinese: 廣深港高速鐵路; pinyin: Guǎng–Shēn–Gǎng Gāosù Tiělù), West Kowloon Station contains a "Mainland Port Area (simplified Chinese: 站内地口岸区; traditional Chinese:
站內地口岸區)", essentially enabling passengers and goods to clear mainland Chinese immigration on Hong Kong soil.
Shenzhen Bay Port (simplified Chinese: 深圳湾口岸; traditional Chinese: 深圳灣口岸): The land border checkpoint at Shenzhen Bay Port in the mainland contains a Hong Kong Port Area (simplified Chinese: 港方口岸区; traditional Chinese: 港方口岸區) which enables passengers and goods to clear Hong Kong border controls in the mainland. The checkpoint is located in the
Chinese mainland on land leased from the city of Shenzhen in Guangdong province. By enabling travellers to clear both Chinese and Hong Kong border controls in one place, it eliminates any need for a second checkpoint on the Hong Kong side of the Shenzhen Bay Bridge.
Entrance of the Hong Kong Port Area of the Shenzhen Bay Port Passenger Terminal Building
 
Entrance of the Mainland Port Area at West Kowloon Station
 
Mainland Chinese police station in the Mainland Port Area
 
Mainland Chinese entry stamp issued at Hong Kong West Kowloon railway station
 
Mainland Chinese exit stamp issued at Hong Kong West Kowloon railway station in a Chinese passport
Map of the upcoming Rapid Transit system.
Singapore and Malaysia:
Woodlands Train Checkpoint (Malay: Pusat Pemeriksaan Kereta Api Woodlands, Chinese: 兀兰火车关卡, Tamil: ஊட்லண்ட்ஸ் இரயில் மசாதலைச்சாவடிப): For cross-border rail passengers, Singaporean exit and Malaysian entry preclearance border controls are co-located at the Woodlands Train Checkpoint in Singapore, whilst Malaysian exit
controls are located separately at Johor Bahru Sentral railway station in Malaysia.
Johor Bahru – Singapore Rapid Transit System (Malay: Sistem Transit Aliran Johor Bahru–Singapura, Chinese: 新山－新加坡捷运系统, Tamil: ஜோகூர் பாரு - சிங்கப்பூர் விரைவான போக்குவரத்து அமைப்பு, RTS): The upcoming RTS connecting Singapore and Johor Bahru will feature border control
preclearance both on the Singaporean side and on the Malaysian side. This will enable passengers arriving in Singapore from Malaysia or vice versa to proceed straight to their connecting transport, since the RTS will link to both the Singapore MRT system (Thomson-East Coast MRT Line) and Johor Bahru Sentral. Unlike the preclearance systems adopted in America and Hong Kong, but similar to
the United Kingdom's juxtaposed controls, this system will mitigate arrival border controls on both sides of the border.[402][403]
Malaysia and Thailand:
Padang Besar railway station (Thai: สถานีรถไฟปาดังเบซาร์, Malay: Stesen keretapi Padang Besar): The Padang Besar railway station in Padang Besar, Malaysia has co-located border control facilities for both Malaysia and Thailand, although the station is wholly located inside Malaysian territory (albeit just 200 metres south of the Malaysia-Thailand
border). The facilities for each country operate from separate counters inside the railway station building at the platform level.[404] Passengers entering Thailand clear Malaysian and Thai border formalities here in Malaysian territory before boarding their State Railway of Thailand trains which then cross the actual borderline several minutes after departing the station. Passengers
from Thailand entering Malaysia are also processed here, using the same counters as there are no separate counters for processing entries and exits for either country.
United Kingdom and the Schengen Area: Border control for travel between the United Kingdom and the Schengen Area features significant prescreening under the juxtaposed controls programme for travel both by ferry and rail. This includes customs and immigration prescreening on both sides of the Eurotunnel, and immigration-only prescreening for ferry passengers and on the Eurostar between
the United Kingdom and stations located in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. Eurostar and Eurotunnel passengers departing from the Schengen area go through both French, Dutch, or Belgian exit border control and British entry border controls before departures, while passengers departing from the United Kingdom, including those departing for Belgium or the Netherlands, undergo French
border controls on British soil. For travel by ferry, French entry border control for ferries between Dover and Calais or Dunkerque take place at the Port of Dover, whilst French exit and British entry border control takes place at Calais and Dunkerque. For travel by rail, twelve juxtaposed border control checkpoints are currently in operation.[ar]
Entry stamp into the Schengen Area issued by the French Border Police at St Pancras International station ('LFT' stands for 'Liaison fixe transmanche' (literally: cross-Channel fixed link))
 
Exit stamp from the Schengen Area issued by the French Border Police at Gare du Nord
 
British entry stamp issued by the UK Border Force at Gare du Nord.
 
Juxtaposed immigration controls at Brussel-Zuid/Bruxelles-Midi railway station, with the Belgian Federal Police carrying out exit immigration checks from the Schengen Area in front, and the UK Border Force carrying UK entry immigration checks behind.
 
UK Border Force checkpoint at the Eurotunnel Calais Terminal, where entry checks are carried out before boarding the train to the UK.
 
French Border Police checkpoint at London St Pancras International station, where entry immigration checks to the Schengen Area are carried out before boarding the train.
America: The American government operates border preclearance facilities at a number of ports and airports in foreign territory. They are staffed and operated by U.S. Customs and Border Protection officers. Travellers pass through American Immigration and Customs, Public Health, and Agriculture inspections before boarding their aircraft, ship, or train. This process is intended to
streamline border procedures, reduce congestion at ports of entry, and facilitate travel between the preclearance location and American airports unequipped to handle international travellers. These facilities are present at the majority of major Canadian airports, as well as selected airports in Bermuda, Aruba, the Bahamas, Abu Dhabi[408] and Ireland.[409] Facilities located in Canada
accept NEXUS cards and United States Passport cards (land/sea entry only) in lieu of passports. A preclearance facility is currently being planned at Dubai International Airport[410] Citizens of the Bahamas who enter America through either of the two preclearance facilities in that country enjoy an exemption from the general requirement to hold a visa as long as they can sufficiently
prove that they do not have a significant criminal record in either the Bahamas or America. All Bahamians applying for admission at a port-of-entry other than the pre-clearance facilities located in Nassau or Freeport International airports are required to be in possession of a valid visa.[411] Preclearance facilities are also operated at Pacific Central Station, the Port of Vancouver,
and the Port of Victoria in British Columbia, and there are plans to open one at Montreal Central Station in Quebec.
The interior of the American preclearance departures at Montréal.
 
Shannon Airport preclearance
 
Stamps in a United States passport, one from Canada Border Services Agency (right) and the other from U.S. Customs (left), both issued at Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport
Informal prescreening
In some cases countries can introduce controls that functions as border controls but aren't border controls legally and don't need to be performed by government agencies. Normally they are performed and organised by private companies, based on a law that they have to check that passengers don't travel into a specific country if they aren't allowed to. Such controls can take effect in one
country based on the law of another country without any formalised border control prescreening agreement in force. Even if they aren't border controls they function as such. The most prominent example is airlines which check passports and visa before passengers are allowed to board the aircraft. Also for some passenger boats such check are performed before boarding.
Expedited border controls
See also: Automated border control system
Certain countries and trade blocs establish programmes for high-frequency and/or low risk travellers to expedite border controls, subjecting them to lighter or automated checks, or priority border control facilities. In some countries, citizens or residents have access to automated facilities not available to foreigners.
British Isles
ePassport gates in the British Isles are operated by the UK Border Force and the Irish Naturalisation and Immigration Service, and are located at immigration checkpoints in the arrival halls of some airports across the British Isles, offering an alternative to using desks staffed by immigration officers. The gates use facial recognition system to verify the user's identity by comparing
the user's facial features to those recorded in the photograph stored in the chip in their biometric passport.
British citizens, European Economic Area citizens and citizens of Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and America as well as Chinese citizens of Hong Kong who are enrolled in the Registered Traveller Service,[412] can use ePassport gates at 14 ports of entry in the United Kingdom[as] provided that they are aged either 18 and over or 12 and over
travelling with an adult and holding valid biometric passports. In Ireland, eGates are available at Dublin Airport for arrivals at Terminal 1 (Piers 1 and 2) and Terminal 2 and, in addition to Irish and British citizens, they are currently available to citizens of Switzerland and the European Economic Area with electronic passports aged 18 or over though there are proposals to extend the
service to non-European citizens. Irish Passport Cards can not be used at eGates.
ePassport gates in Heathrow Airport (Terminal 4)
 
ePassport gates in Heathrow Airport (Terminal 5)
Asia and Oceania
Hong Kong & Macau The Automated Passenger Clearance System (Chinese: 自助出入境檢查閘機), colloquially known as the e-Channel) is an automated border control facility available at airports in Hong Kong and Macau, and at land borders between the mainland and the Special Administrative Regions. It is open to residents in the appropriate regions, and to selected foreign
nationals.[at] In Hong Kong, the eChannel is also available to non-residents on departure, without registration, and to registered non-residents who qualify as "frequent travellers", including Chinese citizens from the Mainland, for both arrival and departure. Finally, Hong Kong's and Macuo's eChannel systems recognise each other's Permanent Resident ID card, after registration in an
automated kiosk at the ferry terminal.
Japan Along with the introduction of J-BIS, an "Automated gate" (Japanese: 自動化ゲート) was set up at Terminal 1 and 2 at Narita Airport, Haneda Airport, Chubu Centrair Airport and Kansai Airport.[414] With this system, when a person enters or leaves the country, rather than having to be processed by an examiner there, a person can use a machine at the gate, thereby making both
entry and departure simpler and easier, as well as more convenient.[415] Japanese people with valid passports, foreigners with both valid passports (this includes refugees with valid travel certificates and re-entry permits) and re-entry permits can use this system.[415]
Mainland China Residents in the PRC, both Chinese citizens and foreign residents (not tourists) can use the Chinese E-Channel after registration, which is done at the border, before leaving the Mainland. Chinese citizens with Hong Kong or Macao Permanent Residency, aka HKID***, can use their Home Return Permit instead of their passport to enter and leave the Mainland.
Australia SmartGates located at major Australian airports allow Australian ePassport holders and ePassport holders of a number of other countries to clear immigration controls more rapidly, and to enhance travel security by performing passport control checks electronically.[416] SmartGate uses facial recognition system to verify the traveller's identity against the data stored in the
chip in their biometric passport, as well as checking against immigration databases. Travellers require a biometric passport to use SmartGate as it uses information from the passport (such as photograph, name and date of birth) and in the respective countries' databases (i.e. banned travellers database) to decide whether to grant entry or departure from Australia or to generate a
referral to a customs agent.[417] These checks would otherwise require manual processing by a human which is time-consuming, costly and potentially error-prone.[418]
New Zealand In New Zealand, a SmartGate system exists at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Queenstown airports,[419] enabling holders of biometric passports issued by New Zealand, Australia, Canada, China, France, Germany, Ireland and the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and America to clear border controls using automated facilities. The system can currently only be used by
travellers 12 years of age or older, however a trial is under way that may potentially lower the age of eligibility to use eGate for people with an eligible ePassport from 12 years of age to 10 years of age. New Zealand eGates utilise biometric technology, comparing the picture of your face in your ePassport with the picture it takes of you at the gate in order to confirm your identity.
To make sure eGate can do this, travellers must make sure they look as similar to their ePassport photos as possible and remove glasses, scarves and hats that they were not wearing when their passport picture was taken. eGate can handle minor changes in your face, for example if the travellers' weight or hair has changed. Customs, Biosecurity and Immigration officials utilise information
provided at eGates, including photos, to clear travellers and their items across New Zealand's border. Biometric information is kept for three months before destruction but other information, including about movements across New Zealand's border is kept indefinitely and handled in accordance with the Privacy Act 1993, or as the law authorises. This might include information being used by
or shared with other law enforcement or border control authorities. Since 1 July 2019, visitors from the 60 Visa Waiver countries require a New Zealand electronic Travel Authority (NZeTA). This is an online application and a further toolkit and requirements for airlines and travel agents can be downloaded from the New Zealand Immigration website.[420]
Thailand The automated passport control (APC) system, which uses a facial recognition system, has been available for Thai nationals since 2012 and more than 20 million have used it. Suvarnabhumi Airport opened 8 automated immigration lanes for foreigners, but only Singaporeans were allowed to use the system initially. Since then, Singaporeans and holders of the Hong Kong SAR passport
have been allowed to use the system.[413][421] Once processed, the foreign travellers can leave the automatic channel and present their passport to a Thai immigration officer to be stamped.[413]
Singapore The enhanced-Immigration Automated Clearance System (eIACS) is available at all checkpoints for Singapore citizens, permanent residents, foreign residents with long-term passes, APEC Business Travel Card holders, and other registered travellers. Foreign visitors whose fingerprints are registered on arrival may use the eIACS lanes for exit clearance. In addition, the Biometric
Identification of Motorbikers (BIKES) System is available for eligible motorcyclists at the land border crossings with Malaysia. Meanwhile, all visitors who have been fingerprinted on entry at a manned counter can use the eIACS to leave Singapore by air. Additionally, nationals of certain countries[au] may register to use the eIACS system on entry, provided they meet prescribed
conditions.
South Korea South Korea maintains a programme known as the Smart Entry Service, open for registration by South Koreans aged 7 or above and by registered foreigners[av] aged 17 or above.[423] Furthermore, visitors aged 17 or older may use the Smart Entry Service on exit at international airports, as long as they have provided their biometrics on arrival.
Taiwan A similar automated entry system, eGate, exists in Taiwan providing expedited border control for Taiwanese nationals [l] as well as certain classes of residents and frequent visitors. Users simply scan their travel documents at the gate and are passed through for facial recognition.[424] As of 2019, there have been instances of foreign non-registered travellers allowed to use the
eGate system to depart, notably at Taipei Taoyuan Airport Terminal 1, but not Terminal 2, using a passport scan and fingerprints.
e-Channel machines at Hong Kong International Airport
 
Smartgate Departures at Sydney Airport
 
Automatedimmigration at Narita Airport
North America
North America has a wide variety of expedited border control programmes:
Caribbean Community CARIPASS: CARIPASS is a voluntary travel card programme that will provide secure and simple border crossings for citizens and legal residents of participating[aw] Caribbean Community (CARICOM) jurisdictions.[426] The CARIPASS initiative is coordinated by the Implementation Agency for Crime and Security (CARICOM IMPACS), and seeks to provide standardised border control
facilities within participating Caribbean communities.[427] CARIPASS is accepted as a valid travel document within and between participating member states and will allow cardholders to access automated gate facilities at immigration checkpoints that will use biometric technology to verify the user.[428]
United States Global Entry: Global Entry is an programme for frequent travellers that enables them to utilise automated border control facilities and priority security screening. In addition to American citizens and Permanent Residents, the programme is open to Indian,[429] Singaporean,[430] and South Korean citizens among others. Global Entry members are eligible to use automated Global
Entry facilities at certain airports to clear border control more efficiently. Enrolled users must present their machine-readable passport or permanent residency card, and submit their fingerprints to establish identity. Users then complete an electronic customs declaration, and are issued a receipt instructing them to either proceed to baggage claim, or to a normal inspection booth for
an interview.[431] Participants may utilise automated kiosks to clear American border controls at participating airports.[ax]
Canada CANPASS: Canadian citizens and Permanent Residents can apply for CANPASS which, in its present form, provides expedited border controls for individuals entering Canada on corporate and private aircraft.
United States Canada NEXUS and FAST: NEXUS is a joint Canadian-American expedited border control programme for low risk travellers holding Canadian or U.S. citizenship or permanent residence. Membership requires approval by Canadian and American authorities and entitles members to dedicated RFID-enabled lanes when crossing the land border. A NEXUS card can also be utilised as a travel
document between the two countries and entitles passengers to priority border control facilities in Canada and Global Entry facilities in America. Free and Secure Trade (FAST) is a similar programme for commercial drivers and approved importers, reducing the amount of customs checks conducted at the border and expediting the border control process. When entering America by air, holders
of NEXUS cards may use Global Entry kiosks to clear border controls at participating airports[ax]
United States SENTRI: SENTRI is a programme similar to NEXUS for American and Mexican citizens that additionally allows members to register their cars for expedited land border controls. Unlike NEXUS, SENTRI is administered solely by the American government and does not provide expedited controls when entering Mexico. When entering America by land from Canada, it can be used as a NEXUS
card, but not the other way around. Individuals holding a NEXUS card may additionally register their cars for expedited land border controls under SENTRI. When entering America by air, holders of SENTRI cards may use Global Entry kiosks to clear border controls at participating airports[ax]
United States TSA PreCheck: TSA PreCheck is a trusted traveller programme initiated in December 2013 and administered by the American Transportation Security Administration that allows selected members of select frequent flyer programs, members of Global Entry, NEXUS, and SENTRI, members of the US military, and cadets and midshipmen of the United States service academies[433] After
completing a background check, being fingerprinted,[434] and paying an $85 fee, travellers will get a Known Traveler Number. TSA does not issue an ID card like Global Entry, NEXUS, and SENTRI do.[435] Travelers are notified if they have PreCheck by having an indicator printed on their boarding pass that may say "TSAPRECHK", "TSA PRE", or "TSA Pre✓®" depending on the airline and type
of boarding pass.[435] As of December 2019, a total of 73 airlines were participating in the program.[436]
Mexico Viajero Confiable: Viajero Confiable is a Mexican trusted traveller programme which allows members to pass securely through customs and immigration controls in reduced time,[437] using automated kiosks at participating airports. Viajero Confiable was introduced in three airports in 2014 and has since expanded to additional sites. Like the NEXUS, Global Entry, and TSA PreCheck
programs, Viajero Confiable members traveling via participating airports may use designated lanes which allow them to speedily and securely clear customs, because the Mexican government has already performed a background check on them, and they are considered a trusted traveller. At the participating airports, members may use automated kiosks to scan their passport and fingerprints, and
complete an electronic immigration form.[citation needed] The programme is targeted at Mexican citizens, as well as American or Canadian citizens who are members of the Global Entry or NEXUS programme and are lawful permanent residents of Mexico.[438]
Countries whose citizens are eligible for Global Entry
 
Sample NEXUS card
 
A NEXUS lane at the American side of the Ambassador Bridge
APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC)
  Full members of the scheme
  Transitional members (America and Canada)
Main article: APEC Business Travel Card
The APEC Business Travel Card, or ABTC, is an expedited border control programme for business travellers from APEC economies (excluding Canada and America). It provides visa exemptions and access to expedited border control facilities. ABTC holders are eligible for expedited border control at Canadian airports but not for any visa exemptions.
ABTCs are generally issued only to citizens of APEC member countries, however Hong Kong issues them to Permanent Residents who are not Chinese citizens, a category primarily consisting of British, Indian, and Pakistani citizens.
The use of ABTCs in China is restricted as a result of the One Country, Two Systems and One China policies. Taiwanese nationals, and Chinese citizens from Hong Kong, and Macau are required to use special internal travel documents to enter the mainland. Similar restrictions exist on the use of ABTC for Chinese citizens of other regions entering Taiwan. (see: Internal border controls).
Border control organisations by country
Border control is generally the responsibility of specialised government organisations which oversee various aspects their jurisdiction's border control policies, including customs, immigration policy, border security, biosecurity measures. Official designations, division of responsibilities, and command structures of these organisations vary considerably and some countries split border
control functions across multiple agencies.
United States America
Most aspects of American border control are handled by various divisions of the Department of Homelend Security (DHS).
US Customs and Border Protection: U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), a division of the DHS, is the country's primary border control organisation, charged with regulating and facilitating international trade, collecting import duties, and enforcing America trade, customs and immigration regulations.[439][440] It has a workforce of more than 58000 employees.[ay] Every individual
entering America is subject to inspection by Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers for compliance with immigration, customs and agriculture regulations.[443] Travellers are screened for a variety of prohibited items ranging from gold, silver, and precious metals to alcoholic beverages, firearms, and narcotics.[444]
Transport Security Administration: The Transport Security Administration, or TSA, is a division of the DHS responsible for conducting security checks at American airports and other transport hubs, including overseas preclearance facilities (with the notable exception of those in Canada, where CATSA conducts security checks prior to CBP immigration screening). For passengers departing by
air from America, TSA screening is the only physical check conducted upon departure.
Immigration and Customs Enforcement: Immigration and Customs Enforcement, or ICE, is the organisation responsible for enforcing immigration laws within America, focusing largely on deporting undocumented migrants. ICE operates detention centres throughout the country and approximately 34,000 undocumented migrants are imprisoned by ICE on any given day,[445] in over 500 detention centres,
jails, and prisons nationwide.[446]
United States Citizenship and Immigration Services: United States Citizenship and Immigration Services is responsible for various aspects of border control relating to immigration, including reviewing visa petitions and applications as well as processing asylum claims.
State and local law enforcement agencies: Officers from police forces established by state, county, and municipal governments across America are deputised by ICE to detain undocumented migrants pursuant to Immigration and Nationality Act Section 287(g). Under section 287(g), ICE trains and authorises state and local law enforcement officers to identify, process, and detain undocumented
migrants they encounter during their daily law-enforcement activity.[447] The 287(g) programme has been criticised for increasing racist profiling by police and undermining community safety as the fear of deportation discourages undocumented migrants from reporting crimes or talking to law enforcement officers.[448]
 Canada
Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada: Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC; French: Immigration, Réfugiés et Citoyenneté Canada) is the department of the Government of Canada with responsibility for matters dealing with immigration to Canada, refugees, and Canadian citizenship. IRCC's mandate emanates from the Department of Citizenship and Immigration Act. The
Minister of IRCC is the key person to uphold and administer the Citizenship Act of 197 and its subsequent amendments. The minister will work closely with the Minister of Public Safety in relation to the administration of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act.[449]
Canada Border Services Agency: The Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA; French: Agence des services frontaliers du Canada) is the primary organisation tasked with maintaining Canada's border controls. The Agency was created on 12 December 2003, though its creation was formalised by the Canada Border Services Agency Act,[450] which received Royal Assent on 3 November 2005. amalgamating
Canada Customs (from the now-defunct Canada Customs and Revenue Agency) with border and enforcement personnel from the Department of the CIC and the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA).
Canadian Air Transport Security Authority: The Canadian Air Transport Security Authority (CATSA; (French: Administration canadienne de la sûreté du transport aérien) is the Canadian Crown corporation responsible for security screening of people and baggage and the administration of identity cards at the 89 designated airports in Canada. CATSA is answerable to Transport Canada and
reports to the Government of Canada through the Minister of Transport.[451]
China
Border control in China is the responsibility of a variety of entities in each of the country's four distinct immigration areas. In the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau, agencies tracing their lineage to British and Portuguese colonial authorities, respectively, perform border control functions based on the policies and practices in force before those territories'
return to the People's Republic of China. Areas administered by the Republic of China are subject to border controls distinct from those in the People's Republic of China.
China People's Republic of China:
 Hong Kong: The Immigration Department (Chinese: 入境事務處) of Hong Kong is responsible for border controls of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Regions, including internal controls with the rest of China. After the People's Republic of China resumed sovereignty of the territory in July 1997, Hong Kong's immigration system remained largely unchanged from its British predecessor
model. In addition, visa-free entry acceptance regulations into Hong Kong for passport holders of some 170 countries remain unchanged before and after 1997.
 Macau: The Immigration Department of Macau, under the Public Security Police Force, is the government agency responsible for immigration matters, whilst the Public Security Police Force itself is responsible for enforcing immigration laws in Macau.[452]
China Mainland China: Border control in Mainland China is the responsibility of National Immigration Administration (NIA; Chinese: 国家移民管理局; pinyin: Guójiā Yímín Guǎnlǐ Jú)[453]), a unit of the Ministry of Public Security (MPS; Chinese: 公安部; pinyin: Gōng'ānbù). Customs related border controls are largely within the purview of the General Administration of
Customs of the People's Republic of China.
Taiwan Republic of China: In areas controlled by the Republic of China[l] the National Immigration Agency (NIA; Chinese: 內政部移民署; pinyin: Nèizhèngbù Yímínshǔ), a subsidiary organisation of the Ministry of the Interior is responsible for border control. The agency is headed by the Director General. The current Director-General is Chiu Feng-kuang.[454] The agency was
established in early 2007 and its job includes the care and guidance of new immigrants, exit and entry control, the deportation of undocumented migrants, and the prevention of human trafficking.[455] The agency also deals with persons from Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau who do not hold household registration in the areas controlled by the ROC.
 India
Border control in India is performed by a variety of organisations, each focusing on a distinct section of its external borders.
Border Security Force: The Border Security Force, or BSF, is the primary border defence organisation of India. It is one of the five Central Armed Police Forces of the Union of India, it was raised in the wake of the 1965 War on 1 December 1965, "for ensuring the security of the borders of India and for matters connected there with".[456][457] From independence in 1947 to 1965, the
protection of India's international boundaries was the responsibility of local police belonging to each border state, with little inter-state coordination. BSF was created as a Central government-controlled security force to guard all of India's borders, thus bringing greater cohesion in border security. BSF is charged with guarding India's land border during peacetime and preventing
transnational crime. It is a Union Government Agency under the administrative control of the Ministry of Home Affairs.[458] It currently stands as the world's largest border guarding force.[459]
Assam Rifles: The Assam Rifles, one of India's oldest continuously existent paramilitary units, has been responsible for physical controls on the border between India and Myanmar since 2002.[460] The border area between India, Myanmar, and China is largely made up of minority groups, many of which are transboundary communities. Consequently, enforcing border controls is a challenge for
all three countries, and porous sections of the border between India and Myanmar have historically been common since Myanmar was formerly a part of the British Indian Empire.
Indo–Tibetan Border Police: The Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) is charged with maintaining border controls on India's side of the extensive border between minority regions of India and China. In September 1996, the Parliament of India enacted the "Indo-Tibetan Border Police Force Act, 1992" to "provide for the constitution and regulation" of the ITBP "for ensuring the security of
the borders of India and for matters connected therewith".[461][462] The first head of the ITBP, designated Inspector General, was Balbir Singh, a police officer previously belonging to the Intelligence Bureau. The ITBP, which started with 4 battalions, has since restructuring in 1978, undergone expansion to a force of 56 battalions as of 2017 with a sanctioned strength of 89,432.[463]
 Indonesia
The Directorate General of Immigration ((Indonesian: Direktorat Jenderal Imigrasi) is the primary agency tasked with border control in Indonesia.
 Iran
Iranian Immigration & Passport Police: The Immigration & Passport Police Office is a subdivision of Law Enforcement Force of Islamic Republic of Iran with the authority to issue Iranian passports and deals with Immigrants to Iran.[464] The agency is member of ICAO's Public Key Directory (PKD).[465]
Islamic Republic of Iran Border Guard Command: Islamic Republic of Iran Border Guard Command, commonly known as NAJA Border Guard, is a subdivision of Law Enforcement Force of Islamic Republic of Iran (NAJA) and Iran's sole agency that performs border guard and control in land borders, and coast guard in maritime borders. The unit was founded in 2000, and from 1991 to 2000, the unit's
duties was done by of Security deputy of NAJA. Before 1991, border control was Gendarmerie's duty.[466]
 Malaysia
The Immigration Department of Malaysia is a department of the Federal Government of Malaysia which provides services to Malaysian Citizens, Permanent Residents and Foreign Visitors.[467]
The functions of the department are as follows:
1. Issuing of passports and travel documents to Malaysian Citizens and Permanent Residents.
2. Issuing of visas, passes and permits to Foreign Nationals entering Malaysia.
3. Administering and managing the movement of people at authorised entry and exit points.
4. Enforcing the Immigration Act 1959/63, Immigration Regulations 1963 and Passport Act 1966.
 North Korea
Border Security Command and Coastal Security Bureau are collectively responsible for restricting unauthorised cross-border (land and sea) entries and exits, in the early 1990s the bureaux responsible for border security and coastal security were transferred from the State Security Department to the Ministry of People's Armed Forces. Sometime thereafter, the Border Security Bureau was
enlarged to corps level and renamed the Border Security Command. Previously headquartered in Chagang Province, the Border Security Command was relocated to Pyongyang in 2002.[468]
 Pakistan
Physical controls on the internationally recognised portions of Pakistan's international borders are managed by dedicated paramilitary units (the Pakistan Rangers on the border with India, Frontier Corps with Afghanistan and Iran) and the Gilgit−Baltistan Scouts with China, Pakistan-administered side of the Line of Control is guarded and patrolled by Pakistan Army.
Pakistan Rangers: The Pakistan Rangers are a paramilitary law enforcement organisation in Pakistan and have a primary mission of securing important sites such as Pakistan's International Border with India as well as employed in internal security operations, and providing assistance to the police in maintaining law and order. Rangers is an umbrella term for the Pakistan Rangers –
Punjab, headquartered in Lahore, responsible for guarding Punjab Province's 1,300 km long IB with India, and the Pakistan Rangers – Sindh, headquartered in Karachi, defending Sindh Province's ~912 km long IB with India. The forces operate under their own separate chains of command and wear distinct uniforms. Most famously each evening, the Pakistan Rangers – Punjab together with
their Indian counterparts in the BSF, participate in an elaborate flag lowering ceremony at Wagah border crossing near Lahore.
Frontier Corps: The Frontier Corps, is an umbrella term for the two western provincial auxiliary forces part of the paramilitary forces of Pakistan along the western provinces of Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and are the direct counterparts to the Rangers of the eastern provinces (Sindh and Punjab). The Frontier Corps comprises two separate organisations: FC NWFP stationed in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa province (formerly known as the North-West Frontier Province), and includes the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, and FC Balochistan stationed in Balochistan province. Each subdivision is headed by a seconded inspector general, who is a Pakistan Army officer of at least major-general rank, although the force itself is under the jurisdiction of the Interior Ministry.[469]
With a total manpower of approximately 80,000,[470] the task of the Frontier Corps is to help local law enforcement in the maintenance of law and order, and to carry out border patrol and anti-smuggling operations.[471] Some of the FC's constituent units such as the Chitral Scouts, the Khyber Rifles, Swat Levies, the Kurram Militia, the Tochi Scouts, the South Waziristan Scouts, and the
Zhob Militia have regimental histories dating back to British colonial times and many, e.g. the Khyber Rifles, have distinguished combat records before and after 1947.
Gilgit−Baltistan Scouts: The Gilgit−Baltistan Scouts are part of the Paramilitary forces of Pakistan, under the direct control of the Ministry of the Interior of the Pakistan Government. The Scouts are an internal and border security force with the prime objective to protect the China–Pakistan border and support Civil Administration in ensuring maintenance of law and order in
Gilgit-Baltistan and anywhere else in Pakistan.[citation needed] The force was formerly known as the Northern Areas Scouts but was renamed to the Gilgit−Baltistan Scouts in 2011.[472]
Pakistan Customs: Customs-related border security measures in Pakistan are the responsibility of Pakistan Customs.
Schengen Area
Border control in the Schengen Area is primarily performed by the national authorities of individual member states. Consequently, there are many distinct organisations involved with border control along the area's external frontiers and at sea and air ports of entry within its members states.
European Union European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex): Frontex[473][474] is the Schengen Area's multilateral border control organisation. It is headquartered in Warsaw and operates in coordination with the border and coast guards of individual Schengen Area member states. According to the European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE) and the British Refugee Council, in written
evidence submitted to the UK House of Lords inquiry, Frontex fails to demonstrate adequate consideration of international and European asylum and human rights law including the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and EU law in respect of access to asylum and the prohibition of refoulement.[475] In September 2009, a Turkish military radar issued a warning to a Latvian
helicopter conducting an anti-migrant and anti-refugee patrol in the eastern Aegean Sea to leave the area as it is in Turkish airspace. The Turkish General Staff reported that the Latvian Frontex aircraft had violated Turkish airspace west of Didim.[476] According to a Hellenic Air Force announcement, the incident occurred as the Frontex helicopter —identified as an Italian-made Agusta
A109— was patrolling a common route used by people smugglers near the small isle of Farmakonisi.[477] Another incident took place in October 2009 in the airspace above the eastern Aegean sea, off the island of Lesbos.[478] On 20 November 2009, the Turkish General Staff issued a press note alleging that an Estonian Border Guard aircraft Let L-410 UVP taking off from Kos on a Frontex
mission had violated Turkish airspace west of Söke.[476] As part of the Border and Coast Guard a Return Office was established with the capacity to repatriate immigrants residing illegally in the union by deploying Return Intervention Teams composed of escorts, monitors, and specialists dealing with related technical aspects. For this repatriation, a uniform European travel document
would ensure wider acceptance by third countries. In emergency situations such Intervention Teams will be sent to problem areas to bolster security, either at the request of a member state or at the agency's own initiative. It is this latter proposed capability, to be able to deploy specialists to member states borders without the approval[az] of the national government in question that
is proving the most controversial aspect of this European Commission plan.[479]
France Direction centrale de la police aux frontières: The Direction centrale de la police aux frontières (DCPF) is a directorate of the French National Police that is responsible for border control at certain border crossing points and border surveillance in some areas in France.[480] They work alongside their British counterparts at Calais, and along the Channel Tunnel Rail Link with
the British Transport Police. The DCPF is consequently largely responsible for Schengen Area border controls with the United Kingdom.
France Direction générale des douanes et droits indirects: Direction générale des douanes et droits indirects (DGDDI), commonly known as les douanes, is a French law enforcement agency responsible for levying indirect taxes, preventing smuggling, surveilling borders and investigating counterfeit money. The agency acts as a coast guard, border guard, sea rescue organisation and a
customs service.[481] In addition, since 1995, the agency has replaced the Border Police in carrying out immigration control at smaller border checkpoints, in particular at maritime borders and regional airports.[482]
Finland Finnish Border Guard: The Finnish Border Guard, including the coast guard, is the agency responsible for border control related to persons, including passport control and border patrol. The Border Guard is a paramilitary organisation, subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior in administrative issues and to the President of the Republic in issues pertaining to the president's
authority as Commander-in-Chief (e.g. officer promotions). The Finland-Russia border is a controlled external border of the Schengen Area, routinely patrolled and protected by a border zone enforced by the Border Guard. Finland's borders with Norway and Sweden are internal Schengen borders with no routine border controls, but the Border Guard maintains personnel in the area owing to its
search and rescue (SAR) duties. There are two coast guard districts for patrolling maritime borders. In peacetime, the Border Guard trains special forces and light infantry and can be incorporated fully or in part into the Finnish Defence Forces when required by defence readiness. The Border Guard has police and investigative powers in immigration matters and can independently
investigate immigration violations. The Border Guard has search and rescue (SAR) duties, both maritime and inland. The Guard operates SAR helicopters that are often used in inland SAR, in assistance of a local fire and rescue department or other authorities. The Border Guard shares border control duties with Finnish Customs, which inspects arriving goods, and the Finnish Police, which
enforces immigration decisions such as removal.
Sweden Swedish border police: Border control duties in Sweden are handled by a special group in the police force. Sweden has natural land borders only to Norway and Finland, where there are no border controls, so border surveillance is not done there apart from customs control. Therefore, border control is focused on some fixed control points, during the border control-less Schengen
period until 2015 mainly airports. The introduction of full border control from Denmark and the continent in 2015 put a heavy load on the border police who had to check 8000 cars and 50 trains per day coming over the Öresund Bridge, and 3000 cars in Helsingborg and more in other ferry ports. The police quickly educated several hundred semi-authorised border control guards who had to ask
the real officers to take over any doubtful case. The customs office and the coast guard can not do formal border controls, but can stop people in doubtful cases and ask police to take over.
 Singapore
The Immigration and Checkpoints Authority, or ICA, is the border control agency of Singapore under the Ministry of Home Affairs.[483] The ICA is responsible for border control, border customs services, and immigration enforcement in Singapore.[484][485] ICA is accountable to Parliament through the Minister for Home Affairs. The agency is in charge of maintaining all border
checkpoints[ba] in Singapore. In addition, ICA handles anti-terrorism operations and is responsible for many visa and residence related aspects of border control.
 United Kingdom
HM Revenue and Customs: Customs administration related to border controls in the United Kingdom largely fall within the jurisdiction of HM Revenue and Customs.
UK Visas and Immigration (UKVI): UKVI operates the visa aspect of the United Kingdom's border controls, managing applications from foreign nationals seeking to visit or work in the UK, and also considers applications from businesses and educational institutions seeking to become sponsors for foreign nationals. It also considers applications from foreign nationals seeking British
citizenship.
Border Force: The Border Force is in charge[bb] of physical controls and checkpoints at airports, land borders, and ports. Since 1 March 2012, Border Force has been a law-enforcement command within the Home Office, accountable directly to ministers. Border Force is responsible for immigration and customs at 140 rail, air and sea ports in the UK and western Europe, as well as thousands of
smaller airstrips, ports and marinas.[488] The work of the Border Force is monitored by the Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration.
Immigration Enforcement: Immigration Enforcement is the organisation responsible for enforcing border control policies within the United Kingdom, including pursuing and removing undocumented migrants.
Canadian Border Security Agency officers and police in Vancouver
 
Automated passport control kiosks at Toronto Pearson International Airport
 
National Immigration Agency headquarters in Taipei.
 
Ski Contingent of the Indo-Tibetan Border Police during their 53rd Raising Day Parade, 2014
 
Insignia of the Indian Border Security Force
 
Protests against Frontex in Warsaw in 2008
 
Emblem of the Department of Homeland Security, the umbrella agency responsible for border control in America
Controversies
Certain border control policies of various countries have been the subject of controversy and public debate.
America
Policies targeting Muslims
Since the implementation of added security measures in the aftermath of the 2001 World Trade Centre attacks, reports of discrimination against people perceived to be Muslim by American border security officers have been prevalent in the media.[489] The travel restrictions implemented during the Trump presidency primarily against Muslim majority countries have provoked controversy over
whether such measures are a legitimate Border security measure or unethically discriminatory.
Separation of families seeking asylum
File:Crying children who have been separated from their families at the U.S. border.webm
ProPublica recording of crying children separated from their families.
Children abducted by the American government pictured in a wire-mesh cage. (Photo taken by United States Customs and Border Protection)
In April 2018, as part of its "zero tolerance" policy, the American government ordered the separation of the children of refugees and asylum seekers from their parents (Spanish: Política de separación de familias inmigrantes en los Estados Unidos). As a consequence of popular outrage,[bc] and criticism from the medical[bd] and religious[be] communities, the policy was put on hold by an
executive order signed by President Trump on 20 June 2018. Under the policy, federal authorities separated children from their parents, relatives, or other adults who accompanied them in crossing the border, whether apprehended during an illegal crossing or, in numerous reported cases, legally presenting themselves for asylum.[500] The policy involved prosecuting all adults detained at
the Mexican border, imprisoning parents, and handing minors to the American Department of Health and Human Services (Spanish: Departamento de Salud y Servicios Sociales de los Estados Unidos).[501] The federal government reported that the policy resulted in the separation of over 2300 children from their parents.[502][503]
The Trump administration blamed Congress for the atrocity and labelled the change in policy as "the Democrats' law", even though Congress had been overwhelmingly dominated by Republicans since 2016. Regardless, members of both parties criticised the policy and detractors of the Trump administration emphasise the fact there does not seem to be any written law that required the government
to implement such a policy.[504][505] Attorney General Jeff Sessions, in defending the policy, quoted a passage from the Bible, notwithstanding the fact that religious doctrine carries absolutely no weight in American law.[505] Other officials praised the policy as a deterrent to unlawful immigration.[506][507]
The costs of separating migrant children from their parents and keeping them in "tent cities" are higher than keeping them with their parents in detention centres.[508] To handle the large amount of immigration charges brought by the Trump administration, federal prosecutors had to divert resources from other crime cases.[509] It costs $775 per person per night to house the children when
they are separated but $256 per person per night when they are held in permanent HHS facilities and $298 per person per night to keep the children with their parents in immigration detention centres.[508] The head of the Justice Department's major crimes unit in San Diego diverted staff from drug smuggling cases.[509] Drug smuggling cases were also increasingly pursued in state courts
rather than federal courts, as federal prosecutor were increasingly preoccupied with pursuing charges against illegal border crossings.[509] The Kaiser Family Foundation said that costs associated with the policy may also divert resources from programmes within the Department of Health and Human Services.[510] In July 2018, it was reported that HHS had diverted at least $40 million from
its health programs to care for and reunify migrant children, and that the HHS was preparing to shift more than $200 million from other HHS accounts.[511]
Bhutan
Main articles: Lhotshampa and Bhutanese refugees
Lhotshampa refugees in Beldangi camp in Nepal. The man is holding a Bhutanese passport.
Starting primarily in the 1990s, the Bhutanese government implemented strict restrictions on Nepali residents and implemented internal border control policies to restrict immigration or return of ethnic Nepalis. This policy shift effectively ended previously liberal immigration policies with regards to Nepalis and counts among the most racialised border control policies in Asia.
Israel
Border control, both on entry and on exit, at Israeli airports rate passengers' potential threat to security using factors including nationality, ethnicity, and race.[512][513] Instances of discrimination against Arabs, people perceived to be Muslim, and Russian Jews among others have been reported in the media.[514][515] Security at Tel Aviv's Ben Gurion Airport relies on a number of
fundamentals, including a heavy focus on what Raphael Ron, former director of security at Ben Gurion, terms the "human factor", which he generalised as "the inescapable fact that terrorist attacks are carried out by people who can be found and stopped by an effective security methodology."[516] As part of its focus on this so-called "human factor", Israeli security officers interrogate
travellers, profiling those who appear to be Arab based on name or physical appearance.[517] Even as Israeli authorities argue that racist, ethnic, and religious profiling are effective security measures, according to Boaz Ganor, Israel has not undertaken any known empirical studies on the efficacy of the technique of racial profiling.[518]
Australia
Offshore detention centres
Main articles: Pacific Solution, Nauru Regional Processing Centre, and Manus Regional Processing Centre
Beginning in 2001, Australia implemented border control policies featuring the detention of asylum seekers and economic migrants who arrived unlawfully by boat in nearby islands in the Pacific. These policies are controversial and in 2017 the Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea declared the detention centre at Manus Island to be unconstitutional.[519][520] The adherence of these policies
to international human rights law is a matter of controversy.
Travel restrictions on Australian citizens during the COVID-19 pandemic
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Australia adopted a policy of denying entry to its own citizens arriving from jurisdictions perceived to pose a high risk of COVID-19 transmission.[179] Additionally, Australia adopted a broad policy of restricting entry to the country for all individuals located overseas, including Australian citizens, resulting in a large number of Australian citizens
stranded abroad.[180] Australia's policies with regard to its own citizens undermined the principle in international law that a state must permit entry to its own citizens, as enshrined in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. At the same time, the Australian government prohibited the majority of Australian citizens from exiting the country, even if they ordinarily
reside overseas.[521]
China
Main article: North Korean defectors § China
China does not currently recognise North Korean defectors as refugees and subjects them to immediate deportation if caught. The China-DPRK border is fortified and both sides aim to deter refugees from crossing. This aspect of Chinese border control policy has been criticised by human rights organisations.[522][523]
Cyprus and the European Union
As a result of Northern Cyprus's sovereignty dispute with Southern Cyprus, the South (a member of the European Union) has imposed restrictions on the North's airports, and pressure from the European Union has resulted in all countries other than Turkey recognising the South's ability to impose a border shutdown on the North, thus negating the right to self determination of the
predominantly Turkish Northern Cypriot population and subjecting their airports to border controls imposed by the predominantly Greek South.[524] As a result, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic support and is unable to develop a functioning economy.[525]
Involvement of private companies
Border security is increasingly being outsourced to private companies, with the border security market growing at a rate of 7% per year.[526] In its Border Wars series, the Transnational Institute showed that the arms and security industry helps shape European border security policy through lobbying, regular interactions with EU’s border institutions and its shaping of research
policy.[527] The institute critisises that the border security industry has a vested interest in increasing border militarisation and thus increasing its profits. Furthermore, the same companies are also often involved in the arms trade and thus profit twice: first from fuelling the conflicts, repression and human rights abuses that have led refugees to flee their homes and later from
intercepting them along their migration routes.[528]
Gallery
Korean border
 
The winding border between Pakistan and India is lit by security lights. It is one of the few places on Earth where an international boundary can be seen at night.
 
The Peace Arch at the Canada–United States border, the longest common border in the world.
 
Thailand-Cambodia
 
The Wagah border crossing between India and Pakistan along the Radcliffe Line.
 
Border at Tijuana, Mexico and San Ysidro, California, United States with memorial coffins for those killed crossing this border. A straight-line border surveyed when the region was thinly populated.
 
Elbe at the German-Czech border crossing
 
Vaalimaa's border crossing along the European route E18 on the Finnish side of the Russian border in Virolahti, Finland
 
House on Chaamseweg street in Baarle, village that is divided between Belgium and Netherlands. State border is marked by the line of white plates on the sidewalk
 
Jordan-Israel (Aquaba-Arava)
 
Car of the German Border Patrol
 
Cyclepath on the border of The Netherlands (cyclepath) and Germany (gravelroad)
See also
Asylum seeker
Border barrier
Airspace
Air sovereignty
Illegal entry
United States Border Patrol
Security guard
Illegal immigration
Immigration law
Maritime boundary
Freedom of movement
Refugees
Notes
 For example, Ann Dummett, an activist for racial equality, criticised the legislation, saying that "there is no indication at all in our nationality law of ethnic origin being a criterion. But the purpose of the law since 1981, and the manner in which it is implemented, make sure that ethnic origin is in fact and in practice a deciding factor."[18] Ms Dummett also said that "the 1981
Nationality Act in effect gave full British citizenship to a group of whom at least 96% are white people, and the other, less favourable forms of British nationality to groups who are at least 98% non-white"[19]
 In March 1996, there was a submission to the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination of United Nations. The committee criticised the arrangements of the BN(O) nationality under "Principal subjects of concern": "The Government's statement that South Asian residents of Hong Kong are granted some form of British nationality, whether that of a British National Overseas (BNO)
or a British Overseas Citizen (BOC), so that no resident of Hong Kong would be left stateless following the transfer of sovereignty is noted with interest. It is, however, a matter of concern that such status does not grant the bearer the right of abode in the United Kingdom and contrasts with the full citizenship status conferred upon a predominantly white population living in another
dependent territory. It is noted that most of the persons holding BNO or BOC status are Asians and that judgements on applications for citizenship appear to vary according to the country of origin, which leads to the assumption that this practice reveals elements of racial discrimination."[20]
 For example, the legislative councilor Dr Henrietta Ip criticised the idea of British National (Overseas) and again urged the UK Parliament, to grant full British citizenship to Hong Kong's British nationals in the council meeting held on 5 July 1989, saying that "we were born and live under British rule on British land.... It is therefore... our right to ask that you should give us
back a place of abode so that we can continue to live under British rule on British land if we so wish.... I represent most of all those who live here to firmly request and demand you to grant us the right to full British citizenship so that we can, if we so wish, live in the United Kingdom, our Motherland... I say to you that the right of abode in the United Kingdom is the best and the
only definitive guarantee.... With your failure to give us such a guarantee, reluctant as I may, I must advise the people of Hong Kong, and urgently now, each to seek for themselves a home of last resort even if they have to leave to do so. I do so because, as a legislator, my duty is with the people first and the stability and prosperity of Hong Kong second, although the two are so
interdependent on each other...."
 The legislation is sometimes compared with Macau, a former colony of Portugal, where many residents of Chinese descent were granted right of abode in Portugal when Macau was still under colonial rule. They were not deprived of their right of abode after the transfer of sovereignty of Macau in 1999, their Portuguese passports and citizenship are valid and inheritable, and it turned out
that many of them still choose to stay in Macau.
 Then Shadow Home Secretary, Jack Straw, said in a letter to the then Home Secretary Michael Howard dated 30 January 1997 that a claim that British National (Overseas) status amounts to British nationality "is pure sophistry".[21]
 The Economist also wrote critically in an article published on 3 July 1997 that "the failure to offer citizenship to most of Hong Kong's residents was shameful", and "it was the height of cynicism to hand 6m people over to a regime of proven brutality without allowing them any means to move elsewhere." The article commented that the real reason that the new Labour government still
refused to give full British citizenship to other British Dependent Territories Citizens in around 1997 – because the United Kingdom was waiting until Hong Kong had been disposed of – "would be seen as highly cynical", as Baroness Symons, a Foreign Office minister, has conceded.[22]
 Bantustans within the borders of South Africa were classified as "self-governing" or "independent" and theoretically had some sovereign powers. Independent Bantustans (Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei; also known as the TBVC states) were intended to be fully sovereign. In reality, they had no economic infrastructure worth mentioning and with few exceptions encompassed swaths
of disconnected territory. This meant all the Bantustans were little more than puppet states controlled by South Africa. Throughout the existence of the independent Bantustans, South Africa remained the only country to recognise their independence. Nevertheless, internal organisations of many countries, as well as the South African government, lobbied for their recognition. For example,
upon the foundation of Transkei, the Swiss-South African Association encouraged the Swiss government to recognise the new state. In 1976, leading up to a United States House of Representatives resolution urging the President to not recognise Transkei, the South African government intensely lobbied lawmakers to oppose the bill. While the bill fell short of its needed two-thirds vote, a
simple majority of lawmakers nevertheless supported the resolution.[30] Each TBVC state extended recognition to the other independent Bantustans while South Africa showed its commitment to the notion of TBVC sovereignty by building embassies in the TBVC capitals.
 In South Africa, pass laws were designed to segregate the population, manage urbanisation, and allocate migrant labour. Also known as the natives law, pass laws severely limited the movements of not only blacks, but other peoples as well (e.g. Asians) by requiring them to carry pass books when outside their homelands or designated areas. Before the 1950s, this legislation largely
applied to African men, and attempts to apply it to women in the 1910s and 1950s were met with significant protests. Pass laws would be one of the dominant features of the country's apartheid system, until it was effectively ended in 1986. The first internal passports in South Africa were introduced on 27 June 1797 by the Earl Macartney in an attempt to prevent natives from entering the
Cape Colony.[31] In 1896 the South African Republic brought in two pass laws which required Africans to carry a metal badge and only those employed by a master were permitted to remain on the Rand. Those entering a "labour district" needed a special pass which entitled them to remain for three days.[32] The Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923 deemed urban areas in South Africa as "white"
and required all black African men in cities and towns to carry around permits called "passes" at all times. Anyone found without a pass would be arrested immediately and sent to a rural area. It was replaced in 1945 by the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act, which imposed "influx control" on black men, and also set up guidelines for removing people deemed to be living idle lives
from urban areas. This act outlined requirements for African peoples' "qualification" to reside legally in white metropolitan areas.[33]
 Thousands of Gujaratis returned to Uganda after Yoweri Museveni, the subsequent head of state of Uganda, criticised Idi Amin's policies and invited them to return.[29] According to Museveni, "Gujaratis have played a lead role in Uganda's social and industrial development. I knew that this community can do wonders for my country and they have been doing it for last many decades." The
Gujaratis have resurfaced in Uganda and helped rebuild the economy of East Africa, and are financially well settled.[29][34]
 The 145 states which are parties to the convention are required to provide travel documents to refugees lawfully residing within their territory as per Article 28 of the convention. Refugee travel documents issued pursuant to Article 28 by certain states cannot be used for travel to the bearer's country of citizenship,[35]
 In India, special permits are required to travel across much of the country's north-east and requirements may vary within a given state. Special provisions are occasionally made for individuals from Bhutan or Nepal proceeding to or from their home country. Additionally, individuals arriving in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands from elsewhere in India receive passport stamps (see gallery
at end of section), even though only foreigners are typically subject to permit requirements. Permits issued for minority regions in India include:
Restricted Area Permits and Protected Area Permits for foreigners in portions of north-eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Inner Line Permits for Indian citizens
In the Tibet Autonomous Region (Tibetan: བོད་རང་སྐྱོང་ལྗོངས། ; Chinese: 西藏自治区), two categories of permits are issued:
The Tibet Travel Permits (Chinese: 外国人入藏函 foreigners' entrance letter) required for all foreigners (as well as Chinese citizens from the Republic of China]]) to enter the region
The Alien Travel Permit required for holders of the Tibet Travel Permit to travel outside major urban and tourist areas of the region
The Military Permit (or Border Permit)[48] is required for travel to Ngari (Tibetan: མངའ་རིས་ས་ཁུལ་; Chinese: 阿里), Nyingchi (Tibetan: ཉིང་ཁྲི་ས། ; Chinese: 林芝) , and Nagqu (Tibetan: ནག་ཆུ།; Chinese: 那曲)
Additionally, special permits are issued to nationals of India and Bhutan for religious pilgrimages to Hindu and Buddhist holy sites in the Tibet Autonomous Region.[49][48]
 The area under the definition consists of the island groups of Taiwan, Penghu (the Pescadores), Kinmen (Quemoy), Matsu Islands and other islands.
 For example, Hong Kong Permanent Identity Card or Macau Identity Card and Home Return Permit (simplified Chinese: 回乡证; traditional Chinese: 回鄉證; pinyin: Huíxiāngzhèng) are required for Hong Kong or Macau Permanent Residents who are Chinese citizens to cross the border, whilst mainlanders require a Two-Way Permit (Chinese: 双程证).
 Documents required for travel between the PRC and ROC are:
The Mainland Travel Permit for Taiwan Residents (simplified Chinese: 台胞证; traditional Chinese: 臺胞證; pinyin: Táibāozhèng) issued by the PRC for entry to the mainland, which is also valid but not mandatory for entry to Hong Kong and Macau
The Taiwan Entry Permit (Chinese: 入臺證; pinyin: Rùtáizhèngg) issued to mainlanders by the ROC
The Kinmen-Matsu Permit (traditional Chinese: 金馬證; simplified Chinese: 金马证; pinyin: JīnMǎ zhèng; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Kim-Má-chèng) issued to residents of Kinmen and Matsu (ROC-administered territories in Fujian as well as Penghu for travel to and from the mainland.
 The following documents are currently issued for this purpose:
For mainlanders emigrating to either of the two Special Administrative Regions, authorities in the mainland issue the One Way Travel Permit (Chinese: 单程证; pinyin: Dānchéngzhèng). As the policy is designed to curtail emigration from the mainland rather than immigration to either SAR, issuance is exclusively the responsibility of authorities in the mainland.
Since September 2018, authorities in the mainland have issued the Residence Permit for Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan Residents (Chinese: 港澳台居民居住证; pinyin: Gǎng-Aò-Tái Jūmín Jūzhùzhèng) authorising Chinese citizens from Hong Kong, Macau, and areas administered by the Republic of China to reside in the mainland. The permit is designed to resemble the national
identity card issued to individuals with household registration in the mainland and enables holders to access public and private sector services that require a national identity card number.
 Nationals of the following countries are ineligible for the SEZ visa:[52]
 Afghanistan
 Algeria
 Bahrain
 Cameroon
 Egypt
 Iran
 Iraq
 Jordan
 Kuwait
 Lebanon
 Liberia
 Libya
 Morocco
 Oman
 Pakistan
 Palestine
 Saudi Arabia
 Somalia
 Sri Lanka
 Sudan
 Syria
 Turkey
 Uganda
 Yemen
 Non-visa-exempt ASEAN countries are:
 Cambodia
 Indonesia
 Laos
 Malaysia
 Myanmar
 Philippines
 Thailand
 Vietnam
 These are Greenland and the Faroe Islands. These areas do not maintain strict immigration controls with the Schengen Area, but border controls are sporadically enforced for customs purposes.
Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, all
In Leningrad Oblast – all Russian islands of Gulf of Finland, except Gogland, and 20-km strip along South coast of Gulf of Finland.
The Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, 85% of territory. Transit to border with Georgia and to border with South Ossetia are possible along the main roads. Tsey Gorge is opened for foreigners from 2012.
Part of Kaliningrad Oblast, approx. 15%.
Part of Moscow Oblast, approx. 10%.
Part of Arkhangelsk Oblast, include Novaya Zemlya, approx. 30%.
Part of Murmansk Oblast, approx. 15%. Transit to/from Norway is possible by main road.
Part of Kamchatka Krai.
Part of Primorsky Krai.
 This does not apply to accompanying spouses and minor children or members of travel groups. In addition, a valid identification document has to be produced to the hotel manager or staff.[75]
 For example, in April 2010, Malta introduced temporary checks due to Pope Benedict XVI's visit.[78] It reimposed checks in 2015 in the weeks surrounding the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. In response to the European migrant crisis, several countries set up internal controls. In 2019, Denmark, worried about the bombings in Sweden, introduced passport controls to Swedish
citizens for the first time since the 1950s.[79]
 Normally, the baseline from which the territorial sea is measured is the low-water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts officially recognized by the coastal state. This is either the low-water mark closest to the shore, or alternatively it may be an unlimited distance from permanently exposed land, provided that some portion of elevations exposed at low tide but covered
at high tide (like mud flats) is within 5.6 km of permanently exposed land. Straight baselines can alternatively be defined connecting fringing islands along a coast, across the mouths of rivers, or with certain restrictions across the mouths of bays. In this case, a bay is defined as "a well-marked indentation whose penetration is in such proportion to the width of its mouth as to
contain land-locked waters and constitute more than a mere curvature of the coast. An indentation shall not, however, be regarded as a bay unless its area is as large as, or larger than, that of the semi-circle whose diameter is a line drawn across the mouth of that indentation". The baseline across the bay must also be no more than 44 km in length.
 All "archipelagic waters" within the outermost islands of an archipelagic state such as Indonesia or the Philippines are also considered internal waters, and are treated the same with the exception that innocent passage through them must be allowed. However, archipelagic states may designate certain sea lanes through these waters.
 About 20 countries and regions now have such zones including Canada, India,[138] Japan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Finland, Norway, the United Kingdom, People's Republic of China, South Korea, Republic of China, United States, Sweden, Iceland and Iran. Russia and North Korea have unofficial ADIZs as well.[135][136][139]
 Uniquely, the archipelago is an entirely visa-free zone under the terms of the Svalbard Treaty,[192] which recognises the sovereignty of Norway over the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard but subjects it to certain stipulations and consequently not all Norwegian law applies, including border controls. The treaty regulates the demilitarisation of the archipelago. The signatories were given
equal rights to engage in commercial activities (mainly coal mining) on the islands. As of 2012, Norway and Russia are making use of this right.
 As a standalone document, the BCC allows Mexican citizens to visit border areas in America when entering by land or sea directly from Mexico for less than 72 hours.[194] The document also functions as a full B1/B2 visa when presented with a valid Mexican passport.[195]
 For example, inter-state travel in Australia was restricted in 2020 due to the COVID-19 epidemic, for the first time since the 1918 flu pandemic.
 The local governments of most inhabited British Overseas Territories issue passports to British Overseas Territories citizens resident holding belonger status in the territory concerned, while the Chinese Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau issue passports to Chinese citizens holding permanent residence in the region concerned.
 US Service Passports are issued by the Department of State to "certain non-personal services contractors who travel abroad in support of and pursuant to a contract with the U.S. government", to demonstrate the passport holder is travelling "to conduct work in support of the U.S. government while simultaneously indicating that the traveler has a more attenuated relationship with the U.S.
government that does not justify a diplomatic or official passport."[259][260][261]
 The legal acquis has been identified as EEA-relevant by the EU Commission, which makes it under scrutiny for incorporation into the EEA Agreement by Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway. However, the legal basis rely on Article 21 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, an article which is not reflected in the EEA Agreement.[272]
 Since Mexico permits the use of identity cards issued by Mexican consulates overseas[277] and other documents demonstrating Mexican citizenship for its citizens entering the country, Mexicans holding permanent residence in America are effectively not required by either country to hold a Mexican passport when travelling between the two countries
 Since Mexico permits the use of identity cards issued by Mexican consulates overseas[277] and other documents demonstrating Mexican citizenship for its citizens entering the country, Mexican citizens holding membership in the Kickapoo first nation are effectively not required by either country to hold a passport or Border Crossing Card when travelling between the two countries by land
or sea
 Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute between the Republic of Kosovo and the Republic of Serbia. The Republic of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence on 17 February 2008. Serbia continues to claim it as part of its own sovereign territory. The two governments began to normalise relations in 2013, as part of the 2013 Brussels Agreement. Kosovo is currently recognised as an
independent state by 97 out of the 193 United Nations member states. In total, 112 UN member states have recognised Kosovo at some point, of which 15 later withdrew their recognition.
 For instance, the following jurisdictions permit visitors to use American visas to clear border controls:
 Albania — 90 days;
 Antigua and Barbuda — 30 days; USD 100 visa waiver fee applies.
 Belize — 30 days; USD 50 visa waiver fee applies.
 Bosnia and Herzegovina — 30 days;[324]
 Canada — up to 6 months; only for citizens of Brazil, arriving by air with Electronic Travel Authorisation (eTA).
 Chile — 90 days; for nationals of China only.
 Colombia — 90 days; applicable to certain nationalities only.
 Costa Rica — 30 days or less if the visa is about to expire; must hold a multiple entry visa.
 Dominican Republic — 90 days;
 El Salvador — 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
 Georgia — 90 days within any 180-day period;
 Guatemala — 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
 Honduras — 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
 Jamaica — 30 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
 Mexico — 180 days;[325][326]
 Montenegro — 30 days;
 Nicaragua — 90 days; not applicable to all nationalities.
 North Macedonia — 15 days;
 Oman — certain nationalities can obtain an electronic Omani visa if holding a valid US visa.
 Panama — 30/180 days; must hold a visa valid for at least 2 more entries.
 Peru — 180 days; applicable to nationals of China and India only.
 Philippines — 7 days for nationals of China from the mainland; 14 days for nationals of India.
 Qatar — Non-visa-free nationals can obtain an electronic travel authorisation for 30 days if holding a valid US visa.
Taiwan Republic of China[l] (Taiwan) — certain nationalities can obtain an online travel authorisation if holding a valid American visa.
 São Tomé and Príncipe — 15 days;
 Serbia — 90 days;
 South Korea — 30 days;
 Turkey — certain nationalities can obtain an electronic Turkish visa if holding a valid US visa.
 UAE — Visa on arrival for 14 days; for nationals of India only. (Applicable for Indian citizens holding US Green Card.)[327]
 Nationals of China from the Mainland travelling as tourists and holding a valid visa issued by Australia, Canada, Japan, America, or a Schengen Area state may enter and stay without a visa for up to 7 days. Nationals of India holding a valid tourist, business or resident visa issued by Australia, Canada, Japan, Singapore, United Kingdom, America, or a Schengen Area state may enter and
stay without a visa for up to 14 days. They may enter from any port of entry.[328]
 Eligible jurisdictions are:[333]
Brunei Brunei
Canada Canada
Hong Kong Hong Kong
Japan Japan
Malaysia Malaysia
Singapore Singapore
South Korea South Korea
United States United States
 Holders of the following passports are eligible:[336]
European Union European Union
Andorra Andorra
Iceland Iceland
Liechtenstein Liechtenstein
Monaco Monaco
 This includes nationals of[339]:
European Union All European Union citizens
 British Overseas Territories citizens of:
 Anguilla
 Cayman Islands
 Montserrat
 Turks and Caicos Islands
 Afghanistan
 Albania
 Andorra
 Angola
 Antigua and Barbuda
 Argentina
 Armenia
 Australia
 Azerbaijan
 Bahamas
 Barbados
 Belarus
 Belize
 Benin
 Bolivia
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
 Botswana
 Brazil
 Brunei
 Burundi
 Cambodia
 Cameroon
 Cape Verde
 Chile
 Colombia
 Comoros
 Costa Rica
 Cuba
 Djibouti
 Dominica
 Dominican Republic
 East Timor
 Ecuador
 El Salvador
 Equatorial Guinea
 Eritrea
 Eswatini
 Fiji
 Gabon
 Gambia
 Georgia
 Ghana
 Grenada
 Guatemala
 Guinea
 Guyana
 Haiti
 Honduras
 Iceland
 Israel
 Ivory Coast
 Jamaica
 Japan
 Jordan
 Kenya
 Kiribati
 Laos
 Lesotho
 Liberia
 Liechtenstein
 Madagascar
 Malawi
 Mali
 Marshall Islands
 Mauritius
 Mexico
 Micronesia
 Moldova
 Monaco
 Mongolia
 Montenegro
 Mozambique
 Myanmar
 Namibia
 Nauru
 New Zealand
 Cook Islands
 Niue
 Nicaragua
 Niger
 North Macedonia
 Norway
 Oman
 Palau
 Palestine
 Panama
 Papua New Guinea
 Paraguay
 Peru
 Philippines
 Russia
 Rwanda
 Saint Kitts and Nevis
 Saint Lucia
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
 Samoa
 San Marino
 Senegal
 Serbia
 Seychelles
 Sierra Leone
 Singapore
 Solomon Islands
 South Africa
 South Korea
 Suriname
  Switzerland
 Taiwan
 Tanzania
 Thailand
 Togo
 Tonga
 Trinidad and Tobago
 Tuvalu
 Uganda
 Ukraine
 United Arab Emirates
 United States
 Uruguay
 Vanuatu
  Vatican City
 Venezuela
 Vietnam
 Zambia
 Zimbabwe
Ahmedabad
Amritsar
Bagdogra
Bengaluru
Chandigarh
Chennai
Coimbatore
Delhi
Gaya
Goa
Guwahati
Hyderabad
Jaipur
Kochi
Kolkata
Kozhikode
Lucknow
Madurai
Mangaluru
Mumbai
Nagpur
Pune
Thiruvananthapuram
Tiruchirappalli
Varanasi
Visakhapatnam
Cochin
Goa
Mangalore
 Eligible jurisdictions are as follows:[343]
 Angola
 Argentina
 Australia
 Austria
 Azerbaijan
 Bahamas
 Bahrain
 Barbados
 Botswana
 Brunei
 Canada
 China
 Costa Rica
 Finland
 France
 Germany
 Ghana
 Iceland
 Indonesia
 Iran
 Italy
 Japan
 A holder of an EVW authorisation can visit and/or study in the UK for up to 6 months without a visa. An EVW is only valid for one entry, and a new EVW must be obtained each time an eligible person wishes to enter the UK to visit and/or study for up to 6 months without a visa. The EVW is valid for visits up to 90 days to Ireland once a holder has cleared immigration in the United
Kingdom.
 In 1960, local border traffic on the Yugoslavia — Italy border in Istria registered almost seven million crossings in both directions.[387] In 1977 Yugoslavia had 55 local border traffic agreements with the neighboring countries, including 7 with Italy, 11 with Austria, 8 with Hungary, 10 with Romania, 8 with Bulgaria, 5 with Greece.[388]
 Currently operational rail checkpoints include:
In Belgium[405]
Brussel-Zuid/Bruxelles-Midi
In France[406]
Bourg-Saint-Maurice
Calais-Fréthun
Coquelles
Gare du Nord
Lille-Europe
Moûtiers
In the Netherlands[407]:
Rotterdam Centraal station
Amsterdam Centraal station
In the UK[406]
Ashford International
Ebbsfleet International
St Pancras International
Birmingham Airport
Bristol Airport
Cardiff Airport
East Midlands Airport
Edinburgh Airport
Eurostar St Pancras Terminal
Eurostar Brussels-Zuid Terminal
Gatwick Airport (North and South Terminals)
Glasgow Airport
Heathrow Airport (Terminals 2, 3, 4 and 5)
London City Airport
Luton Airport
Manchester Airport (Terminals 1, 2 and 3)
Stansted Airport
 Holders of the following foreign passports are eligible:[413]
Australia Australian passport
Germany German passport
South Korea Republic of Korea passport
Singapore Singapore passport
Thailand Thai passport
 Australia Australian passport
Hong Kong Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passport
Japan Japan passport
Malaysia Malaysia passport
New Zealand New Zealand passport
China People's Republic of China passport
South Korea Republic of Korea passport
Thailand Thailand passport
United Kingdom United Kingdom passport
United States United States passport
 Foreign passport holders eligible to register include:
Hong Kong Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passport
Macau Macao Special Administrative Region passport
Singapore Singapore passport
Taiwan Republic of China passport
United States United States passport[422]
 The following CARICOM jurisdictions are participating in the programme:[425]
Antigua and Barbuda
Barbados
Dominica
Grenada
Guyana
Jamaica
St. Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
 The following airports are equipped with automated kiosks (except where otherwise stated, all participating airports are located in United States or its territories):[clarification needed][432]
United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi International Airport (AUH)‡
Anchorage – Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport (ANC)
Atlanta – Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport (ATL)
Austin-Bergstrom International Airport (AUS)
Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport (BWI)
Boston – Logan International Airport (BOS)
Burlington International Airport (BTV)‡
Canada Calgary International Airport (YYC)
Charlotte-Douglas International Airport (CLT)
Chicago Midway International Airport (MDW)‡
Chicago O'Hare International Airport (ORD)
Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport (CVG)
Cleveland Hopkins International Airport (CLE)
Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (DFW)
Daniel K. Inouye International Airport (HNL)
Denver International Airport (DEN)
Detroit Metropolitan Airport (DTW)
Republic of Ireland Dublin Airport (DUB)‡
Canada Edmonton International Airport (YEG)
Fairbanks International Airport (FAI)
Fort Lauderdale/Hollywood International Airport (FLL)
Guam International Airport (GUM)
Canada Halifax Stanfield International Airport (YHZ)
Houston George Bush Intercontinental Airport (IAH)
John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York City (JFK)
John Wayne Airport (SNA)‡
Lambert-St. Louis International Airport (STL)
Los Angeles International Airport (LAX)
Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport (SJU)
The Bahamas Lynden Pindling International Airport, Bahamas (NAS)‡
McCarran International Airport, Las Vegas (LAS)
Miami International Airport (MIA)
Milwaukee Mitchell International Airport, Milwaukee (MKE)
Minneapolis/St. Paul International Airport (MSP)
Canada Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport (YUL)
Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR)
Oakland International Airport (OAK)‡
Orlando International Airport (MCO)
Orlando-Sanford International Airport (SFB)
Canada Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport (YOW)
Philadelphia International Airport (PHL)
Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport (PHX)
Pittsburgh International Airport (PIT)
Portland International Airport (PDX)
Aruba Queen Beatrix International Airport, Aruba (AUA)‡
Raleigh-Durham International Airport (RDU)‡
Saipan International Airport (SPN)‡
Salt Lake City International Airport (SLC)
San Antonio International Airport (SAT)
San Diego International Airport (SAN)
San Francisco International Airport (SFO)
San Jose International Airport (SJC)‡
Seattle-Tacoma International Airport – SeaTac (SEA)
Republic of Ireland Shannon Airport (SNN)‡
Tampa International Airport (TPA)
Canada Toronto Pearson International Airport (YYZ)
Canada Vancouver International Airport (YVR)
Washington-Dulles International Airport (IAD)
Canada Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport (YWG)
The ‡ indicates there are no Global Entry enrollment centres at these sites. Note that enrolment centres in Canada are NEXUS enrolment centres staffed by American and Canadian border control officers
More than 21,180 CBP Officers inspect and examine passengers and cargo at over 300 ports of entry.
Over 2,200 CBP Agriculture Specialists work to curtail the spread of harmful pests and plant and animal diseases that may harm America's farms and food supply or cause bio- and agro-terrorism.
Over 21,370 Border Patrol Agents protect and patrol over 3000 kilometres of border with Mexico and over 8000 kilometres of border with Canada.
Nearly 1,050 Air and Marine Interdiction Agents prevent people, weapons, narcotics, and conveyances from illegal entry by air and water.
Nearly 2,500 employees in CBP revenue positions collect over $30 billion annually in entry duties and taxes through the enforcement of trade and tariff laws. In addition, these employees fulfill the agency's trade mission by appraising and classifying imported merchandise. These employees serve in positions such as import specialist, auditor, international trade specialist, and textile
analyst.
The primary goal of the CBP Canine Programme is terrorist detection and apprehension. The programme conducts the largest number of working dogs of any federal law enforcement agency. K-9 teams are assigned to 73 commercial ports and 74 Border Patrol stations throughout the nation.[441][442]
 When deficiencies in the functioning of the border management system of a Member State are identified by Frontex, the Agency will be empowered to require that Member States to take timely corrective action. In urgent situations that put the functioning of the Schengen area at risk or when deficiencies have not been remedied, the Agency will be able to step in to ensure that action is
taken on the ground even where there is no request for assistance from the Member State concerned or where that Member State considers that there is no need for additional intervention.
Land Commands
Tuas Command
Woodlands Command
Woodlands Train Checkpoint
Old Woodlands Checkpoint (Closed to most traffic except for motorcycles and lorries carrying cargo.)
Airport Command
Singapore Changi Airport
Seletar Airport
Air Cargo Command
Airport Logistics Park of Singapore
Changi Airfreight Centre
Parcel Post Section
Ports Command
Port of Singapore
Sembawang Port
Jurong Port
Keppel Distripark
Ports Command HQ
Coastal Command
Singapore Cruise Centre
Marina Bay Cruise Centre Singapore
Tanah Merah Ferry Terminal
Changi Ferry Terminal
Changi Point Ferry Terminal
Jurong Fishery Port
Marina South Pier
West Coast Pier
 The organisation's primary responsibilities are:[486][487]
checking the immigration status of people arriving in and departing the UK
searching baggage, vehicles and cargo for unlawful goods or unauthorised migrants
patrolling the British coastline and searching vessels
gathering intelligence
alerting the police and security services to people of interest
 The policy proved extremely unpopular with the public, with approximately 25% of Americans supporting the policy, less than any recent major piece of legislation.[490] The detainment of children by the U.S. government has been compared to the Nazi concentration camps by some observers and politicians.[491][492]
 The policy has been condemned by the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American College of Physicians and the American Psychiatric Association.[493] Together, they represent more than 250,000 doctors in the United States.[494] Dr. Irwin Redlener, who co-founded Children's Health Fund, called the policy "dehumanising" and described it as a form of child abuse.[495] A number of
concerned researchers and clinicians signed an open letter to Homeland Security Secretary Nielsen calling on her to end the migrant child separations, writing, "Decades of psychological and brain research have demonstrated that forced parental separation and placement in incarceration-like facilities can have profound immediate, long-term, and irreparable harm on infant and child
development."[496]
 The policy has been condemned or criticised by:
The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops
The National Association of Evangelicals[497]
The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America[498]
Episcopal Church
United Methodist Church
African Methodist Episcopal Church
Presbyterian Church
Evangelical Lutheran Church
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church)[499]
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